The good Earth : introduction to earth science

Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science
	1.1 Earth Science and the Earth System
		Your Introduction to Earth Science
	1.2 The Scope of (Earth) Science
		Earth System Basics
		Science and Discovery
		Tools Used by Earth Scientists
	1.3 Doing Science
		From Observation to Hypothesis
		Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
		From Hypothesis to Theory
		The Characteristics of Good Science
		Science in Full View: The Hutchinson Gas Explosions
		An Example of Good Science: The Alvarez Hypothesis
		Limitations of Science
		The Characteristics of Bad Science
		An Example of Bad Science: Prediction of a Midcontinent Earthquake
	1.4 Science and Society
		The Role of Earth Science
		Protecting Against Natural Hazards
		Finding and Sustaining Earth's Resources
		Protecting the Health of the Environment
		Ensuring the Future of Human Life
		The Anthropocene: A New Time on Earth?
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 2 Earth in Space
	2.1 Old Ideas, New Ideas
	2.2 Origin of the Universe
		Determining the Age and Size of the Universe
		The Big Bang Theory
	2.3 Stars and Planets
		How Stars Formed
		How Planets Formed
	2.4 Our Solar System
		Characteristics of the Sun
		Eight, Nine, or Ten Planets?
		Types of Planets
		Chapter Snapshot: The Solar System
	2.5 Earth, the Sun, and the Seasons
		Distribution of Solar Radiation
	2.6 The Unique Composition of Earth
		Core, Mantle, and Crust
		Why Is There Life on Earth?
		The Big Picture
chapter 3 Near-Earth Objects
	3.1 Chevy Asteroid
		The Potential for NEO Impacts
	3.2 Characteristics of Near-Earth Objects
		Asteroids and Meteorites
		Comets
	3.3 Impact Features
		Crater Characteristics
	3.4 Impact Hazards
		An Impact Event
		Chapter Snapshot: NEO Impact with Earth
	3.5 Beware of Flying Rocks
		Predicting and Preventing Impact Events
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 4 Plate Tectonics
	4.1 Science and Santa Claus
		Hey, Good Lookin'
	4.2 Continental Drift
		Wegener's Theory
	4.3 Evidence from the Seafloor
		Seafloor Topography
		Age of the Ocean Floor
		Heat Flow, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes
		Seafloor Spreading Theory
		Paleomagnetism
	4.4 Plate Tectonics
		Key Layers and Processes
		The Process of Plate Tectonics
		Chapter Snapshot: Plates of the World
			Do Other Planets Have Plate Tectonics?
	4.5 Plate Boundaries
		Divergent Plate Boundaries
		Convergent Plate Boundaries
		Transform Plate Boundaries
		Plate Tectonics and Climate
		The Big Picture
chapter 5 Earthquakes
	5.1 Experiencing an Earthquake Firsthand
	5.2 The Science of Ghost Forests and Megathrust Earthquakes
		Evidence from Trees
		Evidence from Plate Tectonics
		Linking the Evidence to the Orphan Tsunami
		What These Findings Mean for the Future
	5.3 Faults, Earthquakes, and Plate Tectonics
		Common Features of Faults and Earthquakes
		Directions of Fault Movement
		Amounts of Fault Movement
		Stress and Deformation
		Where to Expect Earthquakes
	5.4 Seismic Waves and Earthquake Detection
		Types of Seismic Waves
		Determining Earthquake Location and Magnitude
		Seismic Waves and Earthquake Warning Systems
	5.5 Measurement of Earthquakes
		Earthquake Magnitude
		Earthquake Intensity (Modified Mercalli Scale)
	5.6 Earthquake Hazards
		Ground Shaking
		Aftershocks
		Landslides
		Elevation Changes
		Liquefaction
		Tsunami
		Chapter Snapshot: 2004 Tsunami
			THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 6 Volcanoes and Other Mountains
	6.1 The Volcano Commandos
		The Speedy Lavas of Nyiragongo
	6.2 Magma Viscosity
		Viscosity and Heat
		Viscosity and Chemical Composition
		Viscosity and Volcanic Eruptions
	6.3 Magma Sources and Magma Composition
	6.4 The Mount St. Helens Eruption
		Prior Activity
		The May 18 Eruption
		How Does Mount St. Helens Compare to Other Eruptions?
	6.5 Products of Volcanic Eruptions
		Airborne Elements
		Chapter Snapshot: Potential Features of Volcanic Eruption
			Surface Effects
	6.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms
		Three Classes of Volcanic Cones
		Other Volcanic Landforms
	6.7 Mountains: Why Are They There?
		Mountains and Plate Tectonics
	6.8 The Rise and Fall of Mountains and Temperatures
		Mountains and Climate
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 7 Rocks and Minerals
	7.1 Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
		Where Do Bricks Come From?
	7.2 Elements and Atoms: The Basic Building Blocks
		Elements
		Atoms
	7.3 Minerals
		Mineral Characteristics
	7.4 Igneous Rocks
		The Classification of Igneous Rocks
		Chapter Snapshot: Origin of Rocks
	7.5 Sedimentary Rocks
		Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
		Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
		Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
		Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
	7.6 Metamorphic Rocks
		Contact Metamorphism
		Regional Metamorphism
	7.7 The Rock Cycle and Mineral Resources
		The Rock Cycle
		Mineral Resources
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 8 Geologic Time
	8.1 Thinking About Time
	8.2 The History of (Relative) Time
		Relative Time
		Chapter Snapshot: Geological History of the Grand Canyon
			Fossils and Chronology
	8.3 Geologic Time
		Evolution of Early Earth
		The Geologic Timescale
		Mass Extinctions
	8.4 Numerical Time
		Radioactive Decay
		Half-Lives
		Applying Both Relative and Numerical Time
	8.5 Rates of Change
		Catastrophism
		Uniformitarianism
		The Big Picture
chapter 9 Weathering and Soils
	9.1 The Dirt on Weathering
		Weathering of Cultural Sites
		Where Does Dirt Come From?
	9.2 Physical Weathering
		Unloading
		Wedging
	9.3 Chemical Weathering
		Dissolution
		Chapter Snapshot: Weathering
			Hydrolysis
			Oxidation
			Linking Chemical and Physical Weathering Processes
	9.4 Biological Weathering and Decay
		Macroscopic Processes
		Microscopic Processes
	9.5 Weathering Rates
		Rock Composition
		Rock Properties
		Climate
		Weathering at World Heritage Sites
	9.6 Soils: An Introduction
		Soil-Forming Factors
		Soil Types
	9.7 Soil Erosion and Conservation
		Erosion by Water and Wind
		Effects of Land Use Practices on Erosion
		Soil Conservation
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 10 Landslides and Slope Failure
	10.1 Mass Wasting: The Human Impact
		The Phenomenon of Mass Wasting
	10.2 Factors Influencing Slope Failure
		Slope Angle
		The Influence of Gravity
		The Effects of Water
		Case Study: Slope Failure in Venezuela
		Methods of Stabilizing Slopes
	10.3 Slope Failure Processes
		Rockfalls
		Rockslides
		Chapter Snapshot: Landslides
			Slumps
			Debris Flows and Mudflows
			Creep
			THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 11 Streams and Floods
	11.1 Humans and Rivers
		The Nile River: An Example of Stream Impact
		Stream Management
	11.2 The Hydrologic Cycle
		The Origin of Streams
	11.3 Drainage Networks and Patterns
		The Drainage Basin or Watershed
		Evolution of Stream Systems
		Drainage Patterns
	11.4 Factors Affecting Stream Flow
		Stream Gradient
		Stream Velocity
		Stream Discharge
	11.5 The Work of Streams
		Erosion
		Transport
		Deposition
		Chapter Snapshot: Channel Migration in the Mamoré River
	11.6 Floods
		Causes of Floods
		Estimating Floods: Measuring Stream Discharge and Stream Stage
		Determining Recurrence Interval
	11.7 Flood Control
		Approaches to Flood Control
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 12 Groundwater and Wetlands
	12.1 Meet Your Drinking Water
		Where Drinking Water Comes From
		A Case of Groundwater Contamination: Woburn, Massachusetts
	12.2 Holes in Earth Materials
		Porosity
		Permeability
	12.3 Groundwater Systems
		Aquifers
		Natural Groundwater Budget: Inflow Versus Outflow
		Consequences of Human Actions
		Chapter Snapshot: Groundwater
	12.4 A Case Study: The High Plains Aquifer
	12.5 Groundwater Quality
		Drinking Yourself to Death, Naturally
		Do-lt-Yourself Groundwater Contamination
	12.6 Introduction to Wetlands
		Characteristics of Wetlands
		Case Study: The Florida Everglades
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 13 Oceans and Coastlines
	13.1 Our Changing Oceans
		The Dynamic Nature of Oceans and Coastlines
	13.2 Ocean Basins
		Sea Level
		Bathymetry of the Ocean Floor
		A Walk Across the Ocean Floor: The Four Major Depth Zones
	13.3 Ocean Waters
		Water Chemistry
		Water Temperature
		Water's Density, Temperature, and Depth
	13.4 Oceanic Circulation
		Ocean Currents
		Coriolis Effect
		Continents and Oceanic Circulation
		Thermohaline Circulation
		The El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO): An Example of Earth as a System
		Chapter Snapshot: Global Circulation and Topography
	13.5 Tides
		Why Tides Occur
		Tidal Patterns
	13.6 Wave Action and Coastal Processes
		Wave Motion in the Open Ocean
		Effect of the Wind on Ocean Waves
		Wave Motion Close to Shore
		Wave Energy
	13.7 Shoreline Features
		The Changing of Coastal Landforms
		The Sediment Budget
	13.8 Shoreline Protection
		Erosion Prevention Strategies
		Erosion Adjustment Strategies
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 14 The Atmosphere
	14.1 Science and Skydiving
	14.2 Air Evolves
		An Atmosphere Evolves
	14.3 Structure and Processes of the Atmosphere
		Heat Versus Temperature
		The Four Layers of the Atmosphere
	14.4 Solar Radiation and the Atmosphere
		Solar Radiation and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
		Earth's Energy Budget
		Chapter Snapshot: The Earth's Albedo
	14.5 The Role of Water in the Atmosphere
		Three States of Water
		Changing States of Water
		Humidity
	14.6 Air Pressure, Condensation, and Precipitation
		Air Pressure and Air Density
		Effects of Air Pressure on Temperature
		Adiabatic Lapse Rates
		Condensation and Cloud Formation
		Precipitation
	14.7 Clouds and Frontal Systems
		Cloud Classification
		Cloud Formation Mechanisms
	14.8 Winds
		The Relationship Between Air Pressure and Wind
		Regional Pressure Gradient
		Coriolis Effect
		Friction
		Cyclones and Anticyclones
		Wind Energy
		THE BIG PICTURE
chapter 15 Weather Systems
	15.1 The Weather Around Us
		Facts About Severe Weather
	15.2 The Science of Weather: From Folklore to Forecasting
		The First Meteorologists
		Communications Developments
		Weather Technology Today
	15.3 Air Masses
		Source Areas
		Types of Air Masses
		Modification of Air Masses
	15.4 Midlatitude Cyclones and Frontal Systems
		Cold Fronts
		Warm Fronts
		Occluded Fronts
	15.5 Severe Weather: Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
		Thunderstorms
		Tornadoes
	15.6 Severe Weather: Hurricanes
		Building a Hurricane
		Chapter Snapshot: Hurricane Anatomy
			Looking to the Future
			The Big Picture
chapter 16 Earth's Climate System
	16.1 Want Ice with That?
		Climate Change and the Polar Bear Diet
		The Consequences of Arctic Warming
	16.2 Global Air Circulation
		Chapter Snapshot: Climate Data
			The Nonrotating Earth Model
			The Rotating Earth Reality
	16.3 Global Climate Regions
		Köppen-Geiger Classification System
		Climate and the Biosphere
		Energy and the Biosphere
	16.4 Extreme Climate Environments
		Cold Climates
		Hot Deserts
	16.5 Records of Climate Change
		Weather Records from Instruments
		Cultural Records
		Short-Term Climate Trends: Annual Cycles
		Long-Term Climate Trends: Abrupt Change and Millennial Cycles
		Interpreting the Climate Record
		Intervals and Rates of Climate Change
	16.6 Natural Causes of Climate Change
		Distribution of the Continents
		Oceanic Circulation Patterns
		Variations in Earth's Orbit
		The Big Picture
chapter 17 Global Change
	17.1 Alternative Climates, Alternative Choices
	17.2. Ozone and the Stratosphere
		The Nature of Ozone
		Natural Variations in Ozone Concentrations
	17.3 CFCs and Ozone Depletion
		The Nature of CFCs
		Reductions in Ozone Concentrations
		Why Does Ozone Become Depleted over the South Pole?
		Our Ozone Future
	17.4 Greenhouse Gases and Global Change
		The Global Carbon Cycle
		Carbon Produced by Human Activity
		Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		Chapter Snapshot: Carbon Cycle
	17.5 Modeling Global Climate Change
		Forcings and Feedbacks
		Climate Models
	17.6 A Warmer World
		Effects of Warmer Temperatures
	17.7 What Can Be Done?
		International Agreements to Improve the Environment
		Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		What Else Can Be Done?
		The Big Picture
Appendix A: Conversion Factors
Appendix B: The Periodic Table
Appendix C: Answers to Selected Checkpoint Questions
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