The Global Cryosphere: Past, Present and Future

Contents......Page 8
Acknowledgements......Page 13

Preface......Page 12
Dimensions of the cryosphere......Page 18
1.2 The role of the cryosphere in the climate system......Page 21
1.3 The organization of cryospheric observations and research......Page 22
1.4 Remote sensing of the cryosphere......Page 23
Part I The terrestrial cryosphere......Page 26
2.1 History......Page 28
Snow......Page 29
Snowflakes......Page 30
Introduction......Page 31
Snow cover, depth distribution, and blowing snow......Page 38
2.4 Snow cover modeling in land surface schemes of GCMs......Page 39
Modeling blowing snow......Page 40
2.5 Snow interception by the canopy......Page 41
2.6 Sublimation......Page 43
2.7 Snow metamorphism......Page 45
2.8 In situ measurements of snow......Page 47
2.9 Remote sensing of snowpack properties and snow-cover area......Page 50
Remote sensing of snow water equivalent (SWE)......Page 53
Linear and nonlinear regression algorithms to estimate SWE......Page 55
Artificial neural network (ANN) algorithms to estimate SWE......Page 58
Active microwave data......Page 60
Empirical snowmelt-runoff models......Page 62
Modified degree-day or modified temperature index (MTI) Method......Page 63
Modeling snowmelt by energy balance method (EBM)......Page 64
One-dimensional vertical energy balance method......Page 66
Snowpack water balance......Page 70
Two-dimensional energy balance approach......Page 74
Intercomparison of snowmelt models......Page 77
An integrated approach to modeling snow accumulation and ablation processes......Page 78
Snowmelt in Greenland......Page 79
Snow cover extent......Page 80
Snow water equivalent......Page 81
2.12 History......Page 89
2.13 Avalanche characteristics......Page 90
2.14 Avalanche models......Page 96
2.15 Trends in avalanche conditions......Page 100
3.1 History......Page 102
3.2 Definitions......Page 104
3.3 Glacier characteristics......Page 105
Glacier types......Page 109
Tidewater glaciers......Page 111
Accumulation area ratio......Page 112
3.4 Mass balance......Page 114
3.5 Remote sensing......Page 116
3.6 Glacier flow and flow lines......Page 119
Glacier response time......Page 123
Surging glaciers......Page 124
3.7 Scaling......Page 125
3.8 Glacier modeling......Page 126
3.9 Ice caps......Page 128
3.10 Glacier hydrology......Page 131
Surface melt processes......Page 134
Glacier runoff......Page 136
3.11 Changes in glaciers and ice caps......Page 138
Alps......Page 139
Arctic......Page 140
British Columbia......Page 143
Antarctica......Page 144
Andes......Page 145
Himalaya......Page 146
Equatorial glaciers......Page 147
Central Asia......Page 148
China......Page 149
Sea-level rise......Page 152
4.1 History of exploration......Page 155
4.2 Mass balance......Page 158
4.3 Remote sensing......Page 159
4.4 Mechanisms of ice sheet changes......Page 161
4.5 The Greenland Ice Sheet......Page 162
4.6 Antarctica......Page 169
4.8 Ice sheet models......Page 176
4.9 Ice sheet and ice shelf interaction......Page 179
4.10 Ice sheet contributions to sea level change......Page 180
5.1 History......Page 182
5.2 Frozen ground definitions and extent......Page 184
5.3 Thermal relationships......Page 186
5.4 Vertical characteristics of permafrost......Page 189
Active layer thickness......Page 191
5.5 Remote sensing......Page 193
5.6 Ground ice......Page 195
5.7 Permafrost models......Page 199
5.8 Geomorphological features associated with permafrost......Page 200
5.9 Changes in permafrost and soil freezing......Page 202
6.1 History......Page 207
6.2 Lake ice......Page 208
Lake ice models......Page 213
6.3 Changes in lake ice cover......Page 216
Freeze-up......Page 219
Ice jams......Page 222
Break-up......Page 224
River ice models......Page 226
6.5 Trends in river ice cover......Page 228
6.6 Icings......Page 230
Part II The marine cryosphere......Page 236
7.1 History......Page 238
7.2 Sea ice characteristics......Page 240
Remote sensing......Page 242
Sea ice growth......Page 249
Landfast ice......Page 257
Snow depth......Page 258
Sea ice decay......Page 259
Multiyearice......Page 262
Mass balance......Page 263
7.3 Ice drift and ocean circulation......Page 265
7.4 Sea ice models......Page 271
7.5 Leads, polynyas, and pressure ridges......Page 275
7.6 Ice thickness......Page 280
7.7 Trends in sea ice extent and thickness......Page 282
Note 7.1......Page 292
8.1 History......Page 293
8.2 Ice shelves......Page 294
Antarctica......Page 295
Antarctic Peninsula......Page 296
Ellesmere Island......Page 299
8.3 Ice streams......Page 300
8.4 Conditions beneath ice shelves......Page 301
Calving processes......Page 303
Iceberg data......Page 306
Physical characteristics......Page 308
Iceberg deterioration......Page 310
Iceberg motion......Page 311
8.7  Ice islands......Page 313
Part III The cryosphere past and future......Page 314
9.1 Introduction......Page 316
9.2 Snowball Earth and ice-free Cretaceous......Page 317
9.3 Phanerozoic glaciations......Page 319
9.4 Late Cenozoic polar glaciations......Page 320
9.5 The Quaternary......Page 323
9.6 The Holocene......Page 331
10.1 Introduction......Page 335
10.2 General observations......Page 336
10.4 Climate projections......Page 338
10.5 Projected changes to Northern Hemisphere snow cover......Page 341
Avalanches......Page 342
10.6 Projected changes in land ice......Page 343
10.7 Projected permafrost changes......Page 345
10.8 Projected changes in freshwater ice......Page 346
10.9 Projected sea ice changes......Page 348
Part IV Applications......Page 350
11.1 Snowfall......Page 352
11.2 Freezing precipitation......Page 353
11.3 Avalanches......Page 354
11.5 Winter sports industry......Page 356
11.7 Hydropower......Page 357
11.8 Snow melt floods......Page 358
11.9 Freshwater ice......Page 359
11.10 Ice roads......Page 360
11.11 Sea ice......Page 361
11.12 Glaciers and ice sheets......Page 362
11.14 Permafrost and ground ice......Page 364
11.15 Seasonal ground freezing......Page 366
Glossary......Page 367
References......Page 375

Index
......Page 475