The Gliocentric Brain: Phenotype Plasticity of the Damaged Brain

Preface
	References
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
	References
Chapter 2: The Brain as an Organ
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Neurons and Their Demands of Their Microenvironment
	2.3 Extracellular Space
	2.4 Blood Supply
	2.5 Glial Cell Relationships and Lineage
	2.6 Brain Fluid Compartments and Their Borders
	2.7 Brain Fluid Dynamics
		2.7.1 Brain Blood Supply
		2.7.2 Cerebrospinal Fluid
		2.7.3 Glymphatic System
	2.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3: Glial Cells During the Life Cycle
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Neuro- and Gliogenesis
	3.3 Glial Cell Function in the Adult Brain
		3.3.1 Astrocytes
			3.3.1.1 Neurovascular Unit
			3.3.1.2 Energy Metabolism
			3.3.1.3 The Tripartite Synapse
			3.3.1.4 Transmitter Homeostasis
			3.3.1.5 Ion Homeostasis
			3.3.1.6 Synaptic Plasticity
			3.3.1.7 Synchronization of Neuronal Network Activity
			3.3.1.8 Supply of Neurotrophic Factors
			3.3.1.9 Control of Systemic Metabolism
			3.3.1.10 Integration of Astrocytic Functions
		3.3.2 Oligodendrocytes
			3.3.2.1 Saltatory Conduction
			3.3.2.2 Potassium Siphoning
			3.3.2.3 Oligodendrocyte-Lactate Shuttle
			3.3.2.4 Adaptive Myelination
		3.3.3 Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells
		3.3.4 Microglia
	3.4 Glial Cell Changes During Normal, Non-pathological Aging
	3.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 4: Reactive Microglia and Astrocyte Phenotype Transitions: A Framework
	References
Chapter 5: Transition of Microglia to Reactive States
	5.1 Microglia Classification
	5.2 Defining Reactive Microglia
		5.2.1 Cytokine Secretion
		5.2.2 Phagocytosis and Cytotoxicity
		5.2.3 Anti-inflammatory Factors
	5.3 Control of Microglia Activation by Neuronal Factors
		5.3.1 Neuronal Inhibitory OFF Factors
		5.3.2 Neuronal Activating ON Factors
	5.4 Pattern Recognition Receptor Activation
		5.4.1 Toll-Like Receptors
		5.4.2 Nucleotide-Binding Oligomerization Domain-Like Receptors and Inflammasome Assembly
		5.4.3 Retinoic Acid-Inducible Gene-I-Like Receptors
		5.4.4 Receptors Facilitating Phagocytosis
	References
Chapter 6: Reactive Astrocytes
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Signals that Shift Astrocytes Toward a Reactive State
	6.3 Interactions with Microglia
	6.4 Proliferation
	6.5 Reactivity and Functions
	6.6 Innate Immunity
	6.7 Proliferative, Border-Forming Reactive Astrocytes
	References
Chapter 7: Neuroinflammation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Cytokine Signaling in Learning and Memory
	7.3 Social Stress and Cytokine Networks
	7.4 Cytokine-Mediated Sickness Behavior
	7.5 Pathological Neuroinflammation
	7.6 Anti-inflammatory Actions and Repair
	7.7 Chronic Neuroinflammation
	7.8 Comparison of Neuroinflammation with Peripheral Inflammation
	References
Chapter 8: The Brain and the Immune System
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Innate Immune Responses of the Brain
	8.3 Adaptive Immune Response
	References
Chapter 9: Viral and Bacterial Infections
	9.1 Major Infection Pathways
	9.2 Latent Infections
	9.3 Viral Infections
		9.3.1 Viral Infections of Neurons
		9.3.2 Viral Infections of Non-neuronal Cells
		9.3.3 Viral Encephalitis
	9.4 Bacterial Infections
	9.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 10: Autoimmune Diseases
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Immunological Tolerance
	10.3 Autoimmune Encephalitis
	10.4 Multiple Sclerosis and Its Animal Model – Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
	10.5 Cuprizone Model of Demyelination
	10.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11: Adult Glial Cell Proliferation and Neurogenesis
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Proliferation of Adult Glia
	11.3 Adult Neurogenesis
		11.3.1 Subependymal Zone
		11.3.2 Subgranular Zone of the Hippocampus
		11.3.3 Hypothalamic Ventricular Zone
		11.3.4 Adult Neurogenesis After Injury
	11.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Glioma
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Primary Brain Tumors
	12.3 Gliomas
		12.3.1 Characterization of Gliomas
		12.3.2 Glioma Stem Cell Versus Cell-of-Origin
		12.3.3 Tumor Microenvironment
	12.4 Metastatic Colonization
	12.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Neurodegenerative Disorders
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Alzheimer’s Disease
	13.3 Parkinson’s Disease
	13.4 Huntington’s Disease
	13.5 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
	13.6 Prion Disease
	13.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Vascular Diseases
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Ischemic Stroke
		14.2.1 Introduction
		14.2.2 Time Course of Cellular Interactions
		14.2.3 Repair and Remodeling After Ischemic Stroke
		14.2.4 Ischemic Preconditioning
	14.3 Hemorrhagic Stroke
	14.4 Vascular Cognitive Impairment
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15: Seizures
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Reactive Gliosis and Epilepsy
	15.3 Causes of Idiopathic Epileptogenesis
	15.4 Are Reactive Astrocytes a Cause of Acquired Epileptogenesis?
	15.5 Ictogenesis due to Reactive Gliosis
	15.6 Microglia and Other Cells of the Immune System
	15.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 16: Traumatic Brain Injury
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Mild Traumatic Brain Injury/Concussion
	16.3 Penetrating Brain Injury
	16.4 Explosive Blast Injury
	16.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 17: Major Psychiatric Disorders
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Schizophrenia
	17.3 Mood Disorders/Suicide
		17.3.1 Introduction
		17.3.2 Major Depressive Disorder
		17.3.3 Bipolar Disorder
		17.3.4 Suicide Behavior
	17.4 Anxiety Disorders
	17.5 Substance Use Disorders
		17.5.1 The Brain Reward System
		17.5.2 Alcohol Use Disorder
		17.5.3 Opioid Use Disorder
		17.5.4 Nicotine Dependence
	17.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 18: Glia in Recovery Processes and Repair
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Remyelination
	18.3 Neurotrophic Factor Production
	18.4 Axonal Sprouting and Synaptogenesis
	18.5 The Complex Role of Macrophages and Microglia
	18.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 19: Glial Phenotype Plasticity
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Context Determines Glial Phenotype
	19.3 Phenotype Switching
	19.4 Cell Type Switching
	19.5 Conclusion
	References
Index