The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem (Mycology)

dk3133fm.pdf......Page 1
The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition......Page 3
Preface......Page 5
Editors......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 7
Contributors......Page 8
Contents......Page 13
THE THOUGHTS BEHIND THIS VOLUME......Page 17
Table of Contents......Page 0
WHAT IS A FUNGAL COMMUNITY?......Page 18
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A FUNGAL COMMUNITY......Page 19
FUNCTIONALITY IN FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 20
FUNGAL COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER ORGANISMS......Page 21
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION......Page 22
REFERENCES......Page 23
Section 1: Structure of Fungal Communities......Page 26
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 27
1.2.1 Linking from Molecules to Individuals......Page 28
1.2.3 Linking from Communities to Ecosystems......Page 29
1.2.4 Linking from Ecosystem Scales to Global Scales......Page 30
1.3.1 Linking from the Microscale to the Plot Scale......Page 31
1.3.2 Linking from the Plot Scale to the Landscape Scale......Page 35
1.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 36
REFERENCES......Page 37
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 41
2.2.2 Mycosociology......Page 42
2.2.3 Recording......Page 43
2.2.5 Species Concepts......Page 45
2.2.6 Fallacies......Page 46
2.4 HOW TO PROCEED......Page 47
REFERENCES......Page 49
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 52
3.2.1 Traditional Approach......Page 53
3.2.2 Molecular Approaches......Page 54
3.2.3 Scaling Up......Page 55
3.2.3.1 Temporal Variability......Page 56
3.2.3.2 Spatial Variability......Page 58
3.2.3.3 Factors Controlling Local Species Diversity......Page 59
3.2.3.5 Infraspecific Genetic Variation......Page 60
3.3.1 Field Studies......Page 61
3.3.2 Experimental Studies......Page 62
3.3.3 Refining Ecological Functions: Münchhausen’s Statistical Grid......Page 64
3.4 OUTLOOK......Page 65
REFERENCES......Page 67
4.2 THE ORIGIN OF MARINE FUNGI......Page 73
4.3 THE MARINE COMMUNITY......Page 78
4.5 BIODIVERSITY......Page 79
4.6.1 Saltmarsh Habitats......Page 81
4.6.2 Mangrove Habitats......Page 83
4.7 OCEANIC WATERS......Page 86
4.8.1 Oomycota......Page 87
4.8.2 Labyrinthulomycetes......Page 88
4.9 FUNCTION OF FUNGI IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT......Page 89
4.10.1 Lichens......Page 90
4.11 THE HUMAN EFFECT......Page 91
4.12 ESTIMATES OF MARINE FUNGI NUMBERS......Page 92
4.13 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM GOALS OF MARINE FUNGI SCIENCE......Page 93
REFERENCES......Page 95
5.1.1 Definition and Distribution of Fungal Communities......Page 105
5.2.1 Graminicolous Fungi......Page 106
5.2.2 Folicolous Fungi......Page 108
5.2.3 Fruit- and Seed-Inhabiting Fungi......Page 112
5.2.4.1 Characters of Freshwater Fungal Communities in the Tropics......Page 113
5.3 TROPICAL FUNGAL COMMUNITIES AND THEIR SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS......Page 114
5.3.2 Freshwater Lignicolous Fungi......Page 115
5.3.3 Why There Are More Tropical Freshwater Ascomycetes with Special Adaptations......Page 116
5.5.1 Mangrove Fungi......Page 117
5.5.2.2 Why Are Fungi Vertically Distributed?......Page 118
5.6.3 Growth Rates......Page 119
5.8 HOST SPECIFICITY, EXCLUSIVITY, AND RECURRENCE......Page 120
5.9 FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 121
REFERENCES......Page 122
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 128
6.2 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL CRUSTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION......Page 130
6.3 ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF SOIL CRUST LICHENS......Page 131
6.3.1 Carbon Exchange......Page 132
6.3.3 Other Aspects of Soil Fertility......Page 137
6.4.1 Water Relations......Page 139
6.4.2 Soil Stability......Page 140
6.4.3 Interactions with Vascular Plants......Page 141
6.4.4 Interaction with Other Soil Food Web Organisms......Page 142
6.5 ANNUAL DYNAMICS OF BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUST LICHENS......Page 143
6.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 144
REFERENCES......Page 145
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 150
7.2 DISPERSAL OF FUNGI AND AVAILABILITY OF PROPAGULES IN SUCCESSIONAL ENVIRONMENTS......Page 153
7.3.1 Host Ranges of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 156
7.3.2 Host Receptivity......Page 157
7.4.1 Environmental Tolerances of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 158
7.4.2 Environmental Tolerances as Drivers of Successional Community Change......Page 162
7.5.1 Herbivory as a Modifier of Fungal Communities......Page 163
7.5.2 Soil Bacterial Fungistasis......Page 164
7.5.3 Positive Interactions among Mycorrhizal Fungi and Bacteria......Page 165
7.5.4 Interactions among Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 166
7.6.1 Synopsis of the Proposed Model for Succession of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 168
7.6.2.1 Can These Assembly Rules Be Applied across Ecosystems?......Page 169
REFERENCES......Page 170
8.1 AN EXAMPLE OF SUBSTRATE SUCCESSION: THE COLONIZATION OF PINE NEEDLES BY FUNGUS FLORA......Page 180
8.2 STUDIES ON OTHER CONIFEROUS SPECIES......Page 183
8.3 HOW SHOULD OBSERVED SUCCESSIONS BE EXPLAINED?......Page 184
REFERENCES......Page 186
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 192
9.2.1 Which Fungal Species Are in Which Hosts?......Page 195
9.2.3 What Is the Life Cycle for Tropical Endophytic Fungi?......Page 197
9.2.4 What Is the Mechanism of Host Defense?......Page 198
9.3 CONCLUSIONS......Page 199
REFERENCES......Page 200
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 203
10.3 DISADVANTAGES OF CLASSICAL METHODS......Page 204
10.4.3 Monitoring......Page 205
10.5.2 Substrate Based......Page 206
10.5.2.3 Sporocarps on Soil and Ectomycorrhizal Associates of Trees......Page 207
10.5.4.3 Particle Filtration......Page 208
10.5.6 Transect-Based Methods......Page 209
10.6.1.1 Species-Area Curves......Page 210
10.6.1.2 Species-Substrate Unit Curves......Page 211
10.6.2 Analysis of Species-Accumulation Curves......Page 212
10.6.3 Nonparametric Species Richness Estimators......Page 213
10.6.5.1 Cluster Analysis......Page 214
10.6.5.2 Principal Components Analysis......Page 215
10.6.5.4 Correspondence Analysis......Page 216
10.6.6 Hypothesis Testing......Page 217
10.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 218
REFERENCES......Page 219
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 225
11.2.1 Substrate Utilization Assays Using Microtitration Plates......Page 227
11.3 DNA-BASED METHODS FOR ANALYZING COMMUNITY DIVERSITY......Page 229
11.3.1.1 Profiling Based on Size Differences of PCR Products after Restriction Digestion: PCR-RFLP and T-RFLP......Page 230
11.3.1.2 Profiling Based on Differences in Melting Temperatures: DGGE and TGGE......Page 232
11.3.2.1 Identification through Phylogenetic Placement......Page 233
11.3.2.2 Oligonucleotide Fingerprinting and Microarrays......Page 234
11.3.3.1 PCR Biases and Artifacts......Page 235
11.3.3.2 Data Interpretation Pitfalls......Page 236
11.4.1 Quantitative PCR......Page 238
11.4.2 Visualization to Estimate Biomass......Page 240
11.5 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 241
REFERENCES......Page 242
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 250
12.2.1 Mutation......Page 251
12.2.3 Mating Systems......Page 252
12.2.5 Genetic Drift......Page 253
12.3.1.1 Estimating Gene Variation......Page 254
12.3.1.2 Estimating Genotype Variation......Page 257
12.3.2 Population Subdivision......Page 258
12.3.3 Inference of Evolutionary Forces......Page 261
12.3.3.1 Mating Systems......Page 264
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 266
REFERENCES......Page 267
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 273
13.2 GENERAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 274
13.3 FUNGAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 275
13.4 DISCUSSION OF GENERAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 276
13.4.1 Application of General Ecology Terminology to Fungi: Distinguishing Features of Fungi......Page 278
13.5 DISCUSSION OF FUNGAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 279
13.6.1 Nutritive Interactions......Page 280
13.6.2 Nonnutritive Interspecific Interactions......Page 281
13.7 PROPOSED CLASSES OF NONNUTRITIVE INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTIONS......Page 282
13.7.1 Coantagonism......Page 283
13.7.4 Cohabitation......Page 286
13.7.6 Mutualism......Page 287
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 288
REFERENCES......Page 289
Section 2: Function of Fungal Communities......Page 292
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 293
14.2 CELLULAR AND SUBCELLULAR IDENTIFICATION, LOCALIZATION, AND MAPPING OF ELEMENTS......Page 294
14.3 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR ELEMENT ANALYSIS......Page 295
14.4 MICROANALYTICAL STUDIES ON STRUCTURAL AND BIOCHEMICAL DIFFERENTIATION DURING MORPHOGENESIS OF FUNGI AND FUNGAL–PLANT INTERACTION......Page 296
14.5 TRANSFORMATION OF SOIL MINERALS BY FUNGI......Page 297
14.6.1 Extracellular Sequestration of Heavy Metals......Page 298
14.6.3 Metal Chelation within Cytosol and Vacuoles......Page 300
14.7 METAL-ACCUMULATING PROPERTIES OF LICHEN-FORMING FUNGI......Page 302
14.8 HEAVY METAL/MYCORRHIZA INTERACTIONS......Page 304
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 305
REFERENCES......Page 306
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 312
15.3 MULTIPHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 313
15.4 SPECTRAL IMAGING......Page 319
15.6 MYCOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS......Page 322
15.6.2 In Situ Hybridization......Page 323
15.6.3 Affinity and Vital Fluorescent Probes......Page 324
15.6.5 Four-Dimensional Imaging......Page 325
15.6.6 Multiphoton Imaging of Fungi......Page 326
15.6.7 Plant–Fungal Interactions......Page 327
REFERENCES......Page 329
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 335
16.2 EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF ENZYME PRODUCTION......Page 336
16.3 ENZYMATIC POTENTIALS EXPLORED IN AXENIC CULTURES......Page 337
16.4 ENZYME ACTIVITIES IN INTACT MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS......Page 340
16.5 ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES......Page 342
16.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 345
REFERENCES......Page 347
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 353
17.2.1 Oxygenases and Peroxidases......Page 354
17.2.3 N and P Metabolism......Page 356
17.3 ACTIVITY PATTERNS AT COMMUNITY LEVEL......Page 357
REFERENCES......Page 361
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 365
18.2 NATURAL ABUNDANCE MEASUREMENTS......Page 366
18.2.1 Carbon Isotopes......Page 367
18.2.2 Causes of δ13C Patterns......Page 371
18.2.3 Nitrogen Isotopes......Page 373
18.2.4 Mycoheterotrophic Plants......Page 378
18.3 COMPOUND-SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS AND ISOTOPIC TRACERS......Page 379
18.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 380
REFERENCES......Page 381
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 386
19.2 DIVERSITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGI......Page 387
19.3 PLANT HOST RESPONSES TO ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY......Page 388
19.4 POLLUTION EFFECTS ON ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY......Page 390
19.5 A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY FUNCTIONING......Page 393
REFERENCES......Page 396
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 402
20.2.1 Viruses of the Chestnut Blight Fungus, Cryphonectria parasitica......Page 403
20.2.3 Release of Transgenic, Virus-Containing Isolates of C. parasitica into the Fungal Community......Page 404
20.2.4 Impact of Viruses on Fungal Epidemics: Dutch Elm Disease......Page 405
20.2.5 Horizontal Transmission of Viruses to Other Species......Page 406
20.2.6 Using Viruses as Molecular Markers in the Fungal Community......Page 408
20.2.8 Other Fungal Virus Systems......Page 409
20.3.1 Evolution of Interactions between Fungal and Bacterial Parasites of Fungal Hosts......Page 410
20.3.2 Bacterial Diseases of Cultivated and Edible Fungi......Page 411
20.3.3 Fungal Diseases of Cultivated and Edible Fungi......Page 412
20.3.4 Bacterial Hyperparasites/Pathogens of Fungi......Page 413
20.4 FUNGAL HYPERPARASITES OR MYCOPARASITES......Page 415
REFERENCES......Page 416
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 425
21.2 NATURAL HISTORY OF FUNGAL ENDOPHYTE–GRASSES SYMBIOSES......Page 426
21.3.2 Pathogen Assemblages......Page 428
21.3.3 The Rhizosphere Community......Page 429
21.3.5 Plant Assemblages: Diversity and Succession......Page 430
21.4.1 Potential Mechanisms......Page 432
21.5 ECOSYSTEM CONSEQUENCES OF FUNGAL ENDOPHYTES......Page 433
21.6 THE ROLE OF FUNGAL GENOTYPE......Page 435
REFERENCES......Page 437
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 445
22.2.1 Variation in Plant Response to Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 446
22.2.2 Variation in Fungal Response to Plants......Page 447
22.2.3.1 Plant–AM Fungal Mutualism......Page 448
22.2.3.2 AM Fungal Parasitism of Plants......Page 449
22.2.3.4 Competition between Plants and Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 450
22.3.1 Modification of Resource Competition by AM Fungi......Page 451
22.3.2 Carbon Transfer in Common Mycorrhizal Networks......Page 452
22.3.3 Indirect Effects between Plants Mediated by Changes in AM Fungal Density......Page 453
22.3.3.2 Interactions between Ecto- and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Plants......Page 454
22.3.3.4 Interactions with Mycoheterotrophic Plants......Page 455
22.3.4.2 Host Specificity in AM Fungal Growth Promotion......Page 456
22.4 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING THE MECHANISMS......Page 457
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 458
REFERENCES......Page 459
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 469
23.2 PATHOGENESIS AS A LIFE HISTORY STRATEGY......Page 471
23.3 THE PLANT DISEASE TRIANGLE......Page 472
23.4 NATIVES AND EXOTICS......Page 473
23.5 EFFECTS OF INDIGINOUS PATHOGENS ON NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN CONIFEROUS FORESTS......Page 474
23.6 PATHOGENS AND OLD-GROWTH FORESTS......Page 479
23.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 480
REFERENCES......Page 481
24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 483
24.2.1 Epichloë typhina (Pers.) Tul.......Page 485
24.2.2 Epichloë clarkii J.F. White......Page 488
24.2.3 Epichloë sylvatica Leuchtm. et Schardl......Page 489
24.2.5 Epichloë festucae Leuchtm. et al.......Page 490
24.2.6 Epichloë amarillans J.F. White......Page 491
24.2.8 Epichloë brachyelytri Schardl et Leuchtm.......Page 492
24.2.10 Epichloë bromicola Leuchtm. et Schardl......Page 493
24.3.1 Neotyphodium typhinum (G. Morgan-Jones et W. Gams) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 494
24.3.2 Neotyphodium coenophialum (G. Morgan-Jones et W. Gams) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 495
24.3.4 Neotyphodium lolii × Epichloë typhina......Page 496
24.3.5 Neotyphodium occultans Moon et al.......Page 497
24.3.7 Neotyphodium siegelii Craven et al.......Page 498
24.3.9 Neotyphodium starrii (J.F. White et G. Morgan-Jones) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 499
24.3.11 Neotyphodium chisosum (J.F. White et G. Morgan-Jones) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 500
24.3.15 Neotyphodium inebrians nom. provis. and N. gansuense C.J. Li......Page 501
24.3.17 Acremonium chilense G. Morgan-Jones et J.F. White......Page 502
24.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 505
REFERENCES......Page 506
25.1 OVERVIEW OF CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 512
25.2 HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 513
25.3.1 Host Shifting in Clavicipitaceae......Page 514
25.5 EVOLUTION OF DEFENSIVE MUTUALISM......Page 516
25.6 DIVERSITY OF STROMAL MORPHOLOGY IN CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 517
25.8 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS IN THE CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 519
25.9 CONIDIAL STATES AS INDICATORS OF EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS......Page 521
REFERENCES......Page 523
26.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 526
26.2 HOSTS ASSOCIATIONS AND EVOLUTION......Page 528
26.3 COMPETITION FOR AND WITHIN THE ENDOPHYTIC NICHE: THE BALANSIEAE......Page 530
26.5 BIODEFENSIVE COMPOUNDS......Page 531
26.5.3 Steroidal and Related Compounds......Page 532
26.5.5 Ergot Alkaloids......Page 533
REFERENCES......Page 534
27.1.1 Algicolous Fungi: Historical Background......Page 539
27.1.2 Fungal Taxonomical Groups Associated with Algae......Page 544
27.1.3 Range of Seaweed Supporting Fungi and Host Specificity......Page 546
27.1.4 Geographical Distribution......Page 548
27.2.1 Algal–Fungal Associations......Page 549
27.2.2 Fungal Colonization of Seaweeds......Page 551
27.3.1 Sampling Strategies......Page 555
27.3.2 Fungal Isolate Diversity......Page 556
27.3.3 Molecular Approaches to Assessing Fungal Diversity......Page 558
27.3.3.2 Molecular Separation and Identification......Page 559
27.3.3.4 Molecular Diversity of Fungi Associated with the Fucus serratus Canopy......Page 567
27.4.1 Fungal Exploitation of Algal Nutrients......Page 571
27.4.2 Fungal Vertical Distribution......Page 573
27.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 575
REFERENCES......Page 576
28.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 586
28.3 FUNGAL GRAZING SOIL FAUNA......Page 587
28.4 FUNGAL RESPONSE TO GRAZING......Page 589
28.5 FUNGIVORY IN THE SOIL FOOD WEB......Page 590
28.6 FUNCTIONAL GUILD CONCEPT......Page 591
28.7 SUCCESSION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS DURING DECOMPOSITION......Page 592
28.8 FUNCTION OF TROPHIC INTERACTIONS......Page 595
28.9 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE......Page 596
REFERENCES......Page 597
29.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 604
29.2.1 Obligate Mycophagists......Page 605
29.2.4 Accidental Mycophagists......Page 606
29.3.2 Microelements......Page 607
29.3.4 Fats and Fatty Acids......Page 608
29.4 NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY......Page 609
29.4.1 Diversity in Fungal Diet......Page 611
29.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 612
REFERENCES......Page 613
30.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 617
30.2 SELECTION PRESSURES FOR EVOLUTION OF A HYPOGEOUS HABIT......Page 618
30.3 MUTATIONS INVOLVED IN SUCCESS OF THE HYPOGEOUS HABIT......Page 619
30.4 EFFECT OF PASSAGE THROUGH A DIGESTIVE TRACT ON SPORES......Page 620
30.5 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EFFECTIVE DISPERSAL AND REPRODUCTION OF SEQUESTRATE FUNGI......Page 621
30.7 EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 623
REFERENCES......Page 624
Section 3: Human Impacts on Fungal Communities and Their Function......Page 628
31.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 629
31.2 HUMAN IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY: THE EXAMPLE OF AGRICULTURE......Page 630
31.3 WHY SHOULD SOCIETY CARE? VALUING BIODIVERSITY......Page 632
31.4 THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF FUNGI......Page 633
31.5 WHAT LEVEL OF DIVERSITY LOSS CAN OR SHOULD BE TOLERATED?......Page 634
31.6 MANAGEMENT OF FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 638
31.7 CONCLUSIONS: FUNGAL COMMUNITIES IN AN ECOSYSTEM CONTEXT......Page 640
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 641
REFERENCES......Page 642
32.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 644
32.4 FUNGAL MORPHOLOGY DURING OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH......Page 646
32.5 PHYSIOLOGY OF OLIGOTROPHICALLY GROWING FUNGI......Page 647
32.6 UTILIZATION OF GASES AND VOLATILES BY FUNGI......Page 649
32.7 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI IN WATER AND ACIDS......Page 650
32.8 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI ON SURFACES......Page 651
32.9 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI ON ROCK AND STONE......Page 652
32.11 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI IN SOILS......Page 653
32.12 CONCLUSIONS: FUNGAL OLIGOTROPHY IN PERSPECTIVE......Page 654
REFERENCES......Page 657
33.1 INTRODUCTION: CLIMATE AND DESERTS......Page 660
33.2 PREDICTED CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS......Page 664
33.3.1 Taxonomic Diversity......Page 665
33.3.2 Functional Diversity......Page 673
33.4 FUNGAL ADAPTATIONS......Page 676
33.5 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 677
REFERENCES......Page 678
34.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 683
34.2 SYMBIOSIS: IT IS ALL ABOUT LIFESTYLES......Page 684
34.3 LIFESTYLE SWITCHING AND FUNGAL TAXONOMY......Page 686
34.4.1 Temperature Tolerance......Page 688
34.4.3 Drought Tolerance......Page 689
34.5 HOW ADAPTIVE ARE SYMBIOSES?......Page 690
34.7 ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY RAMIFICATIONS......Page 692
REFERENCES......Page 693
35.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 696
35.2.1 Increased Level of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide......Page 697
35.2.2 Temperature Changes......Page 698
35.2.3 Water Availability......Page 699
35.2.4 Altered Ultraviolet Radiation......Page 700
35.2.5 Observed Effects of Climate Change on Soil Crust Lichen Communities......Page 701
35.3 LAND USE AND LICHENS IN SOIL CRUST COMMUNITIES......Page 702
35.3.1 Surface Disturbance......Page 703
35.3.2 Recovery......Page 705
REFERENCES......Page 707
36.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 712
36.2 POTENTIAL MECHANISMS FOR CO2 EFFECTS......Page 713
36.3 NUTRIENT ACQUISITION STRATEGIES OF FUNGAL GROUPS......Page 715
36.3.3 Functional Groups of Saprotrophic Fungi......Page 718
36.4.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Communities......Page 720
36.4.2 Ectomycorrhizal Communities......Page 721
36.5 SUMMARY......Page 722
REFERENCES......Page 723
37.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 731
37.2 FUNGAL COMMUNITIES IN METAL-POLLUTED SOILS AND METAL-RICH ENVIRONMENTS......Page 732
37.3.1 Toxicity......Page 735
37.3.3 Enzyme Activity......Page 736
37.4 MORPHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES OF MYCELIAL SYSTEMS IN RESPONSE TO TOXIC METAL STRESS......Page 737
37.5 MECHANISMS OF METAL RESISTANCE AND TOLERANCE......Page 740
37.6.1.1 Mechanisms......Page 743
37.6.2.1 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation......Page 744
37.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNGI IN GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES OF METALS: PERSPECTIVES FOR BIOREMEDIATION......Page 745
37.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 746
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 747
REFERENCES......Page 748
38.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 757
38.3 HOT PARTICLE DESTRUCTION BY SOIL MICROMYCETES......Page 758
38.4 RADIOACTIVITY LEADING TO CHANGES IN FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 759
38.6 RADIONUCLIDE TRANSFER FROM SOIL INTO PLANTS AS AFFECTED BY MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI......Page 761
38.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND OUTLOOK......Page 762
REFERENCES......Page 763
39.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 767
39.2.2 N Deposition......Page 768
39.3.1 Variety of Study Types and Conditions......Page 769
39.3.2 Field Studies: N Inputs and EMF Sporocarps......Page 770
39.3.3 N Inputs and EMF Communities Belowground......Page 772
39.3.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and N Deposition......Page 775
39.3.6 O3 Effects on Mycorrhizal Community Structure......Page 776
39.3.7 O3 Interactions with Other Pollutants......Page 782
39.4.1 What Do We Mean by Optimality?......Page 783
39.4.2.2 Shifting pH and Mycorrhizal Function......Page 784
39.4.2.4 Integrating Nutrient and C Availability......Page 785
39.4.3 Are Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities Optimized as Resources and Conditions Change?......Page 786
39.6 KNOWLEDGE GAPS......Page 789
39.6.2 What Is the Baseline Community?......Page 790
39.6.4 Critical Loads......Page 791
REFERENCES......Page 792
40.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 800
40.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 801
40.4 KAMYANI MOHYLY......Page 804
40.5 MICROMYCETES IN CULTIVATED SOILS......Page 805
REFERENCES......Page 808
41.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 810
41.2.1 Soil Aggregation, SOM Accrual, and C Sequestration......Page 811
41.2.2 Nutrient Acquisition and Cycling......Page 813
41.3.1 Tillage......Page 815
41.3.2 Monocropping and Fallowing......Page 817
41.4.1 Reduction in Soil Disturbance......Page 818
41.4.2 Cropping Rotations......Page 819
41.4.3 Low-Input Systems......Page 821
41.5 SUMMARY......Page 822
REFERENCES......Page 824
42.2.1 Introduction......Page 830
42.2.2.1 Tree Removal......Page 831
42.2.2.3 Changes in Tree Species......Page 832
42.2.2.4 Site Preparation......Page 833
42.2.3 Effects of Forest Management on Sporocarps of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi......Page 834
42.3.2 Methodology......Page 835
42.3.3.1 Tree Removal......Page 836
42.3.3.4 Changes in Tree Species......Page 837
42.4.1 Introduction......Page 838
42.4.2 Disease Triangle......Page 839
42.4.3.1 Root Decay Fungi......Page 840
42.4.3.2 Stem Decay Fungi......Page 841
42.4.3.4 Wilt and Stain Fungi......Page 842
42.4.3.5 Foliar Disease Fungi......Page 843
REFERENCES......Page 844
43.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 853
43.2 WHAT ARE EXOTIC AND INVASIVE SPECIES?......Page 854
43.3 ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF FUNGAL INVASIONS......Page 856
43.3.3 Spread and Invasion......Page 857
43.4 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS: INTERACTIONS OF EXOTIC ORGANISMS WITH NATIVE PLANT, ANIMAL, AND FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 859
43.4.1 Exotic Fungal Plant Pathogens......Page 860
43.4.1.1 Exotic Fungal Animal Pathogens......Page 861
43.4.1.2 Exotic Plant Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 862
43.4.1.3 Exotic Animal Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 863
43.4.1.4 Exotic Fungi and Other Microbes Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 864
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 866
REFERENCES......Page 867
Section 4: Preserving Fungal Communities......Page 874
44.2 HOW DO WE CONSERVE FUNGI?......Page 875
44.3 ADDITIONAL THREATS......Page 877
44.4 VEGETATION TYPES: WOODLANDS......Page 878
44.5 GRASSLANDS......Page 881
44.7 MARITIME, RIVARINE, AND WETLANDS; HEATHS......Page 883
44.8 PROGRESS......Page 884
REFERENCES......Page 887