The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling For Petroleum and Environmental Engineers

9781933762302......Page 1
Front Matter......Page 2
Appendices......Page 0
Preface......Page 4
Table of Contents......Page 6
1.1 Introduction......Page 12
1.3 Introduction to Electrochemistry......Page 13
1.4 Corrosion Agents in Drilling and Producing Operations......Page 15
1.5 Requirements for Electrochemical Corrosion......Page 16
1.5.1 Components of Electrochemical Corrosion......Page 21
1.6 Chemistry of Corrosion and Electromotive Force Series......Page 22
1.6.1 Actual Electrode Potentials......Page 23
1.7 Galvanic Series......Page 24
1.7.2 Polarization......Page 25
1.8 Corrosion of Steel......Page 27
1.9 Gaseous Corrodants......Page 28
1.9.1 Oxygen......Page 29
1.9.2 Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 30
1.9.3 Carbon Dioxide......Page 34
1.9.4 Alkalinity of Environment......Page 35
1.11 Role of Bacteria in Corrosion......Page 38
1.12 Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells......Page 39
References and Bibliography......Page 42
2.1 Introduction......Page 46
2.2 Sweet Corrosion......Page 47
2.3 Sour Corrosion......Page 48
2.4 Classes of Corrosion......Page 49
2.4.1 Stress-Induced Corrosion......Page 52
2.5.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking)......Page 53
2.5.3 Corrosion Fatigue......Page 54
References and Bibliography......Page 58
3.1 Introduction......Page 60
3.1.1 Microbial Growth and Metabolism......Page 63
3.2 Microbes Associated with Oilfield Corrosion......Page 68
3.4 Microorganisms in Corrosion......Page 70
3.4.1 Prokaryotes......Page 71
3.5 Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion......Page 73
3.7 Microbial Corrosion Control......Page 75
References and Bibliography......Page 77
4.2 Cathodic Protection......Page 81
4.3 Conditions for the Steady State or Limiting Corrosion Rate......Page 85
4.4 Inhibitors and Passivators......Page 89
4.4.1.1 Inhibitors Used in Beam Pumping......Page 91
4.5 Coating......Page 94
4.6.2 Microbial Tests......Page 96
4.6.4 Pipeline Tests......Page 97
4.7.2 Caliper Surveys......Page 98
4.8 Nondestructive Test Methods......Page 99
References and Bibliography......Page 100
5.2 Types of Casing......Page 102
5.2.2 Conductor Pipe......Page 103
5.2.4 Intermediate Casing......Page 105
5.2.6 Liners......Page 106
5.3.1 External Casing Corrosion......Page 108
5.3.2.1 Electromagnetic Corrosion Detection......Page 109
5.3.2.4 Casing Potential Profile Curves......Page 110
5.4 Protection of Casing from Corrosion......Page 111
5.4.2 Cementation......Page 112
5.4.3 Completion Fluids......Page 113
5.4.4 Steel Grades......Page 114
5.4.6 Cathodic Protection of Casing......Page 115
5.4.6.1 Structure Potential Measurement......Page 117
5.4.6.2 Soil Resistivity Measurements......Page 118
5.5 Interaction of Old with New Pipeline......Page 122
References and Bibliography......Page 124
6.1 Hardness and Alkalinity......Page 125
6.2.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale......Page 126
6.3 Prediction of Scale Formation......Page 131
6.5 Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, and Magnesite and Mixture of These Carbonates......Page 139
6.6 Relative Permeability Concepts......Page 140
6.6.1 Effect of Water Hardness on Relative Permeability Curves......Page 143
References and Bibliography......Page 145
7.1 Introduction......Page 148
7.2.1 Clay Swelling......Page 149
7.2.2 Formation and Deposition of Insoluble Material in the Formation......Page 151
7.2.3 Increase in Oil Saturation......Page 152
7.2.4 Suspended Solids......Page 153
7.2.5 Movement of Formation Fines......Page 154
7.2.6 Sources of Suspended Solids......Page 155
7.3 Corrosion......Page 157
7.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 159
7.3.4 Oxygen......Page 160
7.3.5 Interactions of the Gases......Page 161
7.4 Use of Seawater for Injection Purposes......Page 162
7.4.1 Characteristics of Seawater......Page 163
7.4.4 pH of Seawater......Page 164
7.4.7 Marine Life......Page 165
7.5 Selection of Water Intake Location......Page 166
7.5.2 Intake from Nearshore Area......Page 167
7.6.2 Fine Screen......Page 168
7.6.4 Filtration......Page 169
7.6.6 Oxygen Scavenging......Page 170
7.6.8 Temperature of Seawater......Page 171
7.6.10 Corrosion Inhibition......Page 172
7.7.1 Dissolved Oxygen......Page 173
7.7.2 pH Change......Page 174
7.7.3 The Membrane Filter Test......Page 175
7.7.5 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria......Page 176
7.7.6.1 Aerobic Plate Count (Total Bacteria)......Page 177
7.7.7.1 Insulated Corrosion Coupons......Page 178
7.7.7.3 Exposure Time of Corrosion Coupons......Page 179
7.7.8 Significance of Various Tests......Page 180
62302_07b......Page 182
7.8 Copra Correlation......Page 190
7.9 Preparation of Water for Subsurface Injection......Page 191
7.9.1 Oil Removal......Page 192
7.9.2 Gravity Separation......Page 193
7.9.3 Flotation......Page 195
7.9.4 Removal of Solids (Filtration)......Page 196
7.9.6 Rapid Sand Filters......Page 197
7.9.7 High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters......Page 198
7.9.9 Selection of Diatomite......Page 201
7.11.1 Pipelines......Page 203
7.11.2 Separators......Page 204
7.11.3 Volume and Origin of Suspended Material to be Removed......Page 205
7.11.6 Filtration Equipment......Page 206
7.11.8 In-Line Flocculation Systems......Page 207
7.11.9 Filter-Aid Filters and In-Line Flocculation Filters......Page 208
7.13 Chemical Mixing and Feed Equipment......Page 209
References and Bibliography......Page 211
8.1 Introduction......Page 215
8.2 Direct and Indirect Cost of Corrosion......Page 216
8.3 Major Industrial Categories of Corrosion Costs......Page 217
8.3.1.1 Gas and Liquid Transmission Pipelines......Page 218
8.3.2.1 Gas Distribution......Page 219
8.3.3 Production and Manufacturing......Page 220
8.3.3.1 Oil and Gas Exploration and Production......Page 221
8.3.3.2 Cost of Corrosion in Drilling......Page 222
8.4 Corrosion-Control Economics and Preventive Methods......Page 223
8.5 Galvanic versus Imposed Direct Electrical Current in Cathodic Protection......Page 225
References and Bibliography......Page 226
A.1 Sample Problems and Questions (Solutions and Answers are Provided)......Page 228
A.2 Sample Questions and Problems (No Solutions)......Page 238
Appendix B: Glossary......Page 241
Appendix C: Conversion of Units......Page 260
C.2 Approximate Equivalents......Page 267
C.3 Theoretical Aspects......Page 268
References......Page 270
A......Page 271
B......Page 273
C......Page 275
D......Page 281
E......Page 283
F......Page 284
G......Page 285
I......Page 286
L......Page 287
N......Page 288
O......Page 289
P......Page 290
S......Page 292
V......Page 295
Z......Page 296