The First Four Million Years of Human Evolution

The first four million years of human evolution......Page 5
Introduction......Page 7
Technology......Page 8
Shelter......Page 10
Ranging......Page 11
Discussion......Page 12
REFERENCES......Page 13
Introduction......Page 17
Polymerase chain reaction and nucleotide sequencing......Page 18
Data analysis......Page 19
Results......Page 20
Discussion......Page 23
REFERENCES......Page 26
The axial pattern of the lca......Page 29
The locomotor skeleton of ardipthecus ramidus......Page 30
Locomotion in the lca......Page 31
Some additional anatomical correlates of bipedality in hominids and advanced arboreality in extant apes......Page 32
The question of oreopithecus......Page 34
REFERENCES......Page 37
Bipedalism: an arboreal or terrestrial origin?......Page 40
The arboreal origins of bipedalism: compressive orthogrady?......Page 42
A compliant foot?......Page 45
Limb mass proportions......Page 47
Proportion of mass as tendon......Page 48
REFERENCES......Page 49
A new story ... west of the Rift Valley......Page 54
The Chadian early hominids......Page 56
The Late Miocene hominid environments as we know them......Page 57
REFERENCES......Page 58
Introduction......Page 61
Mandibles......Page 62
Phylogenetic relationships......Page 65
Discussion......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 67
Introduction......Page 70
Canine tooth size, dimorphism and the canine/p3 complex......Page 71
Mandibular and maxillary morphology......Page 75
Tooth wear......Page 77
Summary and conclusions......Page 79
REFERENCES......Page 80
Background......Page 82
Material and methods......Page 83
Comparisons with other fossil hominins......Page 85
Microwear and the diets of Au. anamensis and Au. afarensis......Page 87
Comparisons with other early hominins......Page 89
REFERENCES......Page 90
Introduction......Page 92
Material and methods......Page 93
Results......Page 94
Discussion......Page 98
We thank Yohannes Haile-Selassie of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History for access to primate skeletons and to Lyman Jellema for technical assistance. William Kimbel kindly provided metrics to unpublished fossil specimens. We also thank Alan Walker and Chris Stringer for organizing the discussion meeting and the staff of the Royal Society for ensuring its success.......Page 99
REFERENCES......Page 100
Introduction......Page 101
The a.l. 822-1 skull......Page 102
Nuchal area height and morphology of the occipital bone......Page 104
Position and orientation of the foramen magnum......Page 105
Length and breadth of the cranial base......Page 107
The cranial base and palate shape......Page 108
Discussion......Page 109
We thank the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage and the National Museum of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and the Afar Regional State government for permission to conduct the field (Hadar) and laboratory (Addis Ababa) research. We are grateful to the (US) National Science Foundation for grants supporting the field and lab work. Thanks are due Dr Mark Spencer for discussion and Mr Lucas Delezene for help with collecting the comparative data.......Page 111
REFERENCES......Page 112
Introduction......Page 113
Material and methods......Page 114
Preservation of the maxilla......Page 116
Morphometric comparisons......Page 118
Discussion......Page 120
REFERENCES......Page 123
Introduction......Page 125
Isotopic evidence for c4 in hominin diets......Page 126
Variability between and within individuals......Page 127
Origins and time depth of the c4 pattern in hominin diets......Page 128
Conclusions......Page 130
REFERENCES......Page 131
Incremental growth of enamel and dentine......Page 133
Constructing a comparative model for early hominin maturation......Page 134
Permanent tooth eruption times in Pan......Page 135
Tooth initiation times, sequences and overlaps......Page 136
Total tooth and root formation times......Page 137
Crown formation times......Page 138
Molar eruption times......Page 139
Total tooth formation times......Page 140
Summary points about dental development in early hominins......Page 141
Discussion......Page 142
REFERENCES......Page 143