The Entomological Guide to Rhipicephalus

Contents
Preface
About the Editors
Chapter 1
Biology, Ecology and Importance  of Rhipicephalus Ticks in Brazil
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Rhipicephalus Microplus (Canestrini, 1888)
	Main Morphological Characteristics
	Geographic Distribution
	Biological Cycle
	Non-Parasitic Phase
	Parasitic Phase
	Rhipicephalus Sanguineus (Latreille) Sensu Lato
	Main Morphological Characteristics
	Geographic Distribution
	Biological Cycle
	Non-Parasitic Phase
	Parasitic Phase
	References
Chapter 2
Epidemiology of Tick-Borne Diseases
	Abstract
	Abbrevations
	Introduction
	Theileriosis
		Morphology
		Taxonomy
		Theileria Species
		Clinical Signs of Theileriosis
		Life Cycle of Theileria
		Transmission
		Geographical Distribution
		Risk Factors Associated with Theileriosis
		Treatment
	Babesiosis
		Morphology and Size Description
		Taxonomy
		Babesia Species
		Clinical Signs of Babesiosis
		Life Cycle of Babesia
		Transmission of Babesiosis
		Geographical Distribution
		Risk Factors Associated with Babesiosis
	Ehrlichiosis
		Morphology and Size Descriptions
		Taxonomy
		Ehrlichia Species
		Clinical Signs
		Life Cycle
		Ehrlichia spp. Transmission
		Geographical Distributions
		Risk Factors
		Treatment
	Heartwater Disease
		Morphology
		Taxonomy
		Symptoms
		Vector
		Susceptible Hosts
		Geographical Localization
	Anaplasmosis
		Cellular Morphology
		Taxonomic Classification
		Species
		Clinical Signs
		Life Cycles
		Ticks Vector
		Geographical Distribution
		Risk Factors
		Treatment
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3
Ticks and Tick Borne Diseases in Pakistan
	Abstract
	Livestock Sector of Pakistan
	Ticks of Pakistan
	Tick Borne Diseases in Pakistan
	Theileriosis
		Theileria spp.
		Clinical Signs of Theileriosis
		Control of Theileriosis
		Bovine Theileriosis in Pakistan
		Ovine Theileriosis in Pakistan
		Equine theileriosis in Pakistan
	Babesiosis
		Babesia spp.
		Clinical Signs of Babesiosis
		Control of Babesiosis
		Bovine Babesiosis in Pakistan
		Ovine Babesiosis in Pakistan
		Equine Babesiosis in Pakistan
		Canine Babesiosis in Pakistan
	Anaplasmosis
		Anaplasma spp.
		Clinical Signs of Anaplasmosis
		Control of Anaplasmosis
		Bovine Anaplasmosis in Pakistan
		Bovine Anaplasmosis in Pakistan
		Eqine Anaplasmosis in Pakistan
	Abbreviation
	References
Chapter 4
Current Status of Tick-Borne Diseases  in India
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Distribution of Important Tick Vectors in India
	Major TBDS Prevalent in India
		Indian Tick Typhus
		Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF)
		Kyasanur Forest Disease
		Theileriosis
		Babesiosis
		Bovine Anaplasmosis
	Vector Control
	References
Chapter 5
Integrated Tick Management
	Abstract
	1. The Genus of Rhipicephalus
		1.1.  Common Name
		1.2.  Taxonomy
		1.3.  Geographical Distribution
		1.4.  Morphology
		1.5.  Life Cycle
		1.6. Behavior (Attachment, Feeding and Mating)
		1.7. Tick Sampling
			1.7.1. The Flagging-Dragging Technique
			1.7.2. Carbon Dioxide Traps
			1.7.3. Collection from Captured Hosts
			1.7.4. Collection from Ambulatory Human Host’s
			1.7.5. Collection from Soil and Litter
		1.8. Ticks Associated Pathology/Clinical Importance
		1.9. Treatment /Control
			1.9.1. Chemical Control
			1.9.2. Botanical/Non-Chemical Control
	References
Chapter 6
Livestock Breeding Intervention to Control Tick- and Tick-Borne Diseases in Tropics
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Concept of Resistance and Tolerance
	Breeding for Resistance to Tick Infestation
		Appropriate Selection Strategies
		Observable or Phenotypic Markers
		Genetic Markers
	Hereditary Architecture of Host Resistance
		Phenotypic Basis of Tick-Resistance
		Immunological Basis of Tick-Resistance
	Genetic Approach
	Genome-Wide Association Studies for Tick-Resistance
	Genetic Resistance to Tick-Borne Diseases
	Ticks and Tick-Borne Disease Resistant Breeds of India
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7
Strategies for the Control  of Rhipicephalus microplus  (Focus only on Chemical Acaricides)
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Brief Historical Review
	Chemical Acaricides Currently Used in Tick Control
		Organophosphates
		Carbamates
		Pyrethroids
		Amidines
		Phenylpyrazoles
		Benzoylphenyl Ureas
		Macrocyclic Lactones
	Methods of Administration of Acaricides
	Resistance to Acaricides
	Strategies to Reduce and Control the Appearance  of Resistance to Acaricides
	Growth Regulators
	Development of New Acaricides
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8
Types of Acaricide Resistance
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Types of Resistance
	Molecular Mechanisms of Acaricide Resistance
	Acaricide Cross Resistance
	Acaricide Resistance to Organophosphate and Carbamates
	Acaricide Resistance to Synthetic Pyrethroids
	Monooxygenase in Organophosphate  and PyrethroidResistance
	Resistance to Amitraz
	The Gaba-Gated Chloride Channel  and Acaricide Resistance
	Resistance to Cyclodiene Organochlorines
	Resistance to Fipronil
	Resistance to Macrocyclic Lactones
	Reduced Penetration of Acaricide
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9
Reference Tick Strains as an Important Biological Material for Acaricide-Resistance Characterization
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
		Reference Strains in Mexico
		Procedures for Acaricide Susceptibility-Resistance Diagnostics on Larvae and Adult Stages of the Cattle Tick Rhipicephalus microplus
			Larvae Package Test
			Initial Acaricide Stock Dilution
		Preparation of Discriminant Doses (DDs)
		Procedure for Preparing Dilutions
		Paper Impregnation
		Larvae Filling of Packages
		Interpretation of the Results
		The Following Equation Is Used to Estimate the Mortality Rate (MR)
	Larvae Immersion Test  (Shaw Immersion Sandwich Technique)
	Adult Immersion Test
		Acaricide Resistance in Mexico
		Organophosphorus (OP) Acaricide Resistance
		Pyrethroid Acaricide Resistance
		Amitraz Resistance
		Fipronil and Ivermectin Acaricide Resistance
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10
Acaricide Resistance in India:  Problem and Mitigation
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Reference Tick Strains
	Acaricide Resistance Status in India
		Resistance to Synthetic Pyrethroids (SPs)
		Resistance to Organophosphates (OPs)
		Resistance to Formamidine Compounds
		Resistance to Macrocyclic Lactones (MLs)
		Resistance to Fipronil
	Possible Mechanisms of Acaricide Resistance
		Metabolic Detoxification of Enzymes
		Target Site Insensitivity
	Contributing Factors in Resistance Development
	Mitigation Strategy of Acaricide Resistance
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus: Molecular Evolution  of Acaricide Resistance
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
		Taxonomy and Life Cycle of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus
		Distribution of Ticks in Mexico
		Biological Aspects of Acaricide Resistance
		Metabolic Detoxification and Evolution of Acaricide Resistance
		Resistance Mechanisms in the Cattle Tick R. microplus
		Catalytic Residues of Esterases
		Genes, Mutations and the Diagnosis of Acaricides Resistance
		Tests for Ixodicides Resistance Detection in R. microplus
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12
Prevalence, Resistance Status and Control Strategies against Ticks in Western India
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Ticks and Its Global Importance
	Prevalence of Ticks in Western India
	Tick Control Measures
		Chemical Control of Ticks and Their Mode of Action
		Arsenic
		Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
		Organophosphorus Compounds
		Carbamates
		Pyrethroids
		Formamidines
		Phenylpyrazoles
		Macrocyclic Lactones
		Modes of Application of Chemical Acaricides
		Dipping
		Spray
		Spot Treatment or Hand Dressing
		Phytoacaricides to Control Ticks
		Biological Control of Ticks
		Tick Vaccines
		Breeding Strategies
		Integrated Management
	Acaricide Resistance: Its Diagnosis and Status
		Mechanism of Acaricide Resistance
		Target Site Insensitivity
		Metabolic Detoxification of Enzymes
		Diagnosis of Resistance
		Bioassays
		Biochemical Assays
		Molecular Assays
		Status of Acaricide Resistance in Western India
		Status of Acaricide Resistance in Other Parts of India
		Management of Acaricide Resistance
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13
Ethnoveterinary Plants and Practices  to Control Ticks with Special Reference  to Rhipicephalus in India
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Genesis of Ethnoveterinary Medicines
	Current Status of Veterinary Ayurveda
	Tick and Tick Borne Diseases (TTBDs) and Its Significance in Livestock Production
	Current Practices for Tick Control
	Ethnoveterinary Medicines in Management of Ticks
	Limitations and Strength of Ethnoveterinary Medicines
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14
Allomones in Resistant Hosts: Features and Use in the Control of Rhipicephalus Ticks
	Abstract
	List of Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Immunological Resistance to Rhipicephalus Ticks
	Innate Immune Resistance to R. microplus and R. sanguineuss.l.
	Adaptive Immune Resistance to R. Microplus and R. SanguineusS.L.
	R. sanguineuss.l Relationship with Resistant  and Susceptible Hosts
		R. microplus Relationship with Resistant and Susceptible Hosts
	References
Chapter 15
Medical and Veterinary Importance  of Rhipicephalus Ticks
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	The Rhipicephalus microplus Complex
		Geographical Distribution
		Diversity of Hosts Affected by R. microplus
		Direct Effects of R. microplus on Cattle
		Indirect Effects of R. microplus on Cattle
		Bovine babesiosis
		Bovine Anaplasmosis
		Bovine borreliosis
	Rhipicephalus appendiculatus
		Geographical Distribution
		Direct Effects of R. appendiculatus on Cattle
		Indirect Effects of R. appendiculatus
		Theileriosis
		Lumpy Skin Disease
		Nairobi Sheep Disease
		Thogoto Virus Disease
	The Rhipicephalus sanguineus Complex
		Importance of R. sanguineus as Vector of Pathogens
		Rickettsiosis
			Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
			Mediterranean Spotted Fever
			Israeli Spotted Fever
			Indian tick typhus
			Murine typhus
			Q Fever
		Diseases Caused by Anaplasmatacea in Dogs
			Canine Tropical Pancytopenia
			Canine Cyclic Thrombocytopenia
		Diseases Caused by Protozoans in Dogs
			Canine Babesiosis
				Large Babesia Species
				Small Babesia Species
				Canine hepatozoonosis
	Other Rhipicephalus Ticks of Veterinary Importance
		Rhipicephalus eversti eversti
		Importance of R. e. eversti as Vector of Diseases
			Equine piroplasmosis
			Rhipicephalus bursa
			Importance of R. bursa as Vector of Diseases
			Ovine and caprine anaplasmosis
			Ovine and caprine babesiosis
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 16
Development of Vaccines  against Rhipicephalus microplus Ticks
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Vaccines against Ticks: An Immunological Perspective
	3. Vaccine Candidate Antigens for R. microplus
		3.1. Bm86
		3.2. Bm95
		3.3. Subolesin
		3.4. Ferritin 2
		3.5. Aquaporins
		3.6. Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel (VDAC)
		3.7. Vitellogenin
		3.8. Serpin
		3.9. Glutathione S-Transferase
		3.10. Voraxin
		3.11. Chitinase
			3.11.1. Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit III
		3.12. Kunitz
		3.13. Metalloproteases
	References
Index