The electric power engineering handbook

The Electric Power Engineering Handbook......Page 1
The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series......Page 2
Preface......Page 5
Editor-in-Chief......Page 6
Editorial Board......Page 7
Contributors......Page 8
Table of Contents......Page 13
1 Electric Power Generation: Non-Conventional Methods......Page 17
1.1 Wind Power......Page 18
Applications......Page 19
Large, Grid Connected......Page 20
Wind Variability......Page 21
Storage Systems......Page 24
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage......Page 25
Battery Storage......Page 26
Fuel Cells......Page 27
Fuel Cell Operation......Page 28
Summary......Page 30
Silicon Cells......Page 31
Copper Indium (Gallium) Diselenide Cells......Page 32
Emerging Technologies......Page 33
Utility-Interactive PV systems......Page 34
Stand-Alone PV Systems......Page 35
References......Page 38
2 Electric Power Generation: Conventional Methods......Page 39
2.1 Hydroelectric Power Generation......Page 40
Hydroelectric Plant Features......Page 41
Generator......Page 43
Generator Step-Up Transformer......Page 46
Governor System......Page 47
Control Systems......Page 48
Special Considerations Affecting Pumped Storage Plants......Page 49
Commissioning of Hydroelectric Plants......Page 50
General......Page 51
Stator......Page 52
Rotor......Page 53
Synchronous Machines, in General......Page 54
Synchronous Generator Capability......Page 55
Synchronous Motor and Condenser Starting......Page 57
2.3 Thermal Generating Plants......Page 59
Grounded......Page 60
Lighting Supply......Page 61
Low-Voltage Switchgear......Page 62
Types of Motors......Page 63
Cable......Page 64
References......Page 65
Available Technologies......Page 66
Microturbines......Page 67
Combustion Turbines......Page 69
Storage Technologies......Page 70
Interface Issues......Page 71
“Traditional Utility” Applications......Page 73
References......Page 74
3 Transformers......Page 75
3.1 Theory and Principles......Page 79
Iron or Steel Core Transformer......Page 80
Equivalent Circuit of an Iron Core Transformer......Page 81
Magnetic Circuit......Page 83
Leakage Reactance......Page 84
Short Circuit Forces......Page 85
Voltage Considerations......Page 86
3.2 Power Transformers......Page 87
Insulation Classes......Page 88
Cooling Classes......Page 89
Short Circuit Duty......Page 90
Economic Evaluation of Losses......Page 91
The Core......Page 93
The Windings......Page 94
Taps g Turns Ratio Adjustment......Page 99
Accessories......Page 101
Liquid Preservation Systems......Page 102
HighHTemperature Superconducting  HTSD Transformer......Page 105
LongHDistance Power......Page 106
Oil Immersion......Page 107
References......Page 0
4 Transmission System......Page 109
4.1 Concept of Energy Transmission and Distribution......Page 110
Switchgear......Page 111
Concept of Energy Transmission and Distribution......Page 112
High-Voltage Transmission Lines......Page 114
High-Voltage DC Lines......Page 116
Distribution Lines......Page 117
Traditonal Line Design Practice......Page 121
Structure Types in Use......Page 123
Factors Affecting Structure Type Selection......Page 124
Current Deterministic Design Practice......Page 125
Reliability Level......Page 126
Improved Design Approaches......Page 128
Appendix A — General Design Criteria — Methodology......Page 129
Transmission Lines and Substations......Page 131
Electrical Stresses......Page 132
Environmental Stresses......Page 135
Mechanical Stresses......Page 137
Insulator Strings......Page 138
Nonceramic (Composite) Insulators......Page 140
Composite Suspension Insulators......Page 141
Porcelain Insulators......Page 143
Insulator Pollution......Page 144
Effects of Pollution......Page 146
Composite Insulators......Page 147
Aging of Composite Insulators......Page 148
Methods for Improving Insulator Performance......Page 149
4.4 Transmission Line Construction and Maintenance......Page 150
Tools......Page 151
Equipment......Page 152
Procedures......Page 153
Replacing Spacers......Page 154
Helicopter Method Considerations......Page 155
Typical Cable Description......Page 156
Conductor......Page 157
Insulation......Page 158
Metallic Sheath......Page 159
Cable Electrical Resistance......Page 160
Cable Capacitance......Page 161
Ungrounded and Single-Point Grounded Shields......Page 162
Multigrounded Shields......Page 163
Cross-Bonded with Transposition and Sectionalized with Transposition......Page 164
Underground Layout and Construction......Page 165
Testing, Troubleshooting, and Fault Location......Page 168
Equivalent Circuit......Page 170
Resistance......Page 172
Current-Carrying Capacity (Ampacity)......Page 174
Inductance and Inductive Reactance......Page 175
Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance......Page 183
References......Page 190
Catenary Cables......Page 197
Approximate Sag-Tension Calculations......Page 205
Numerical Sag-Tension Calculations......Page 210
5 Substations......Page 211
SF6......Page 213
Construction and Service Life......Page 214
Circuit Breaker......Page 216
Voltage Transformers......Page 217
Ground Switches......Page 218
Air Connection......Page 219
Direct Transformer Connections......Page 220
Surge Arrester......Page 221
Control System......Page 222
Gas Compartments and Zones......Page 225
Grounding......Page 226
Testing......Page 227
Economics of GIS......Page 228
5.2 Air Insulated Substations — Bus/Switching Configurations......Page 229
Main and Transfer Bus (Fig. 5.19)......Page 230
Ring Bus (Fig. 5.21)......Page 232
Breaker-and-a-Half (Fig. 5.22)......Page 233
Ambient Conditions......Page 234
Load Break Switches......Page 235
Power Fuses......Page 236
Circuit Breakers......Page 237
References......Page 239
Frequency Converters (HVDC)......Page 240
FACTS Controllers......Page 241
Control......Page 243
6 Distribution Systems......Page 246
Load Classifcation......Page 247
Modeling Applications......Page 248
Load Characteristics and Models......Page 249
Exponential Models......Page 250
Polynomial Models......Page 252
Combined Exponential and Polynomial Models......Page 253
Comparison of Exponential and Polynomial Models......Page 254
Load Window Modeling......Page 255
References......Page 256
Line Impedance......Page 257
Shunt Admittance......Page 271
Line Segment Models......Page 274
Step-Voltage Regulators......Page 278
Transformer Bank Connections......Page 288
Load Models......Page 299
Shunt Capacitor Models......Page 303
Power Flow Analysis......Page 304
Short Circuit Analysis......Page 310
Implementation of Distribution Automation......Page 313
Distribution SCADA......Page 314
Host Computer System......Page 315
Field Devices......Page 316
Tactical and Strategic Implementation Issues......Page 318
Choosing the Vendor......Page 319
Standards......Page 320
Deployment Considerations......Page 321
Support Organization......Page 322
7 Electric Power Utilization......Page 323
Single Stator Electromechanical Meter......Page 324
Blondel\'s Theorem......Page 325
The Electronic Meter......Page 326
Site Diagnostic Meter......Page 327
Demand Metering......Page 328
Time of Use Metering......Page 329
Pulse Metering......Page 330
Totalized Metering......Page 332
Measuring kVA......Page 333
Defining Terms......Page 334
Basic Load Characterization......Page 335
Coincidence and Diversity......Page 336
Load Curves and Load Duration......Page 337
Composite Load Modeling......Page 339
Harmonics and Other Nonsinusoidal Loads......Page 340
Some General Perspectives......Page 341
Load Requirements......Page 343
System Data Acquisition......Page 344
Field Testing......Page 345
Standards......Page 346
Books  an abridged sample......Page 347
8 Power System Analysis and Simulation......Page 348
8.1 The Per-Unit System......Page 349
Impact on Transformers......Page 352
Per-Unit Scaling Extended to Three-Phase Systems......Page 357
Per-Unit Scaling Extended to a General Three-Phase System......Page 361
8.2 Symmetrical Components for Power System Analysis......Page 362
Voltage and Current Transformation......Page 364
Impedance Transformation......Page 366
Power Calculations......Page 368
System Load Representation......Page 369
Summary of the Symmetrical Components in the General ThreeRPhase Case......Page 370
Balanced Voltages and Currents......Page 372
Balanced Power Calculations......Page 373
Balanced System Loads......Page 374
Summary of Symmetrical Components in the Balanced Case......Page 375
Power Transformers......Page 377
References......Page 381
The Power Flow Problem......Page 382
Formulation of the Bus Admittance Matrix......Page 383
Formulation of the Power Flow Equations......Page 384
Bus Classifications......Page 387
The Newton-Raphson Method......Page 388
Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution......Page 390
References......Page 391
Simplifications in the System Model......Page 392
The Balanced Three-Phase Fault......Page 393
The Single Phase-to-Ground Fault......Page 396
The Double Phase-to-Ground Fault......Page 397
An Example Fault Study......Page 398
Balanced Three-Phase Fault......Page 399
Single Phase-to-Ground Fault......Page 400
Further Considerations......Page 405
Defining Terms......Page 407
Further Information......Page 408
9 Power System Protection......Page 409
Types of Transformer Faults......Page 410
Electrical......Page 411
Thermal......Page 413
Magnetizing Inrush AInitialb Recoveryb SympatheticZ......Page 415
Backup Protection......Page 416
Unit Systems......Page 417
Restoration......Page 418
References......Page 419
Differential Protection for Stator Faults (87G)......Page 420
Protection Against Stator Winding Ground Fault......Page 423
Loss-of-Excitation Protection (40)......Page 424
Current Imbalance (46)......Page 425
Anti-Motoring Protection (32)......Page 426
Overexcitation Protection (24)......Page 427
Overvoltage (59)......Page 428
Voltage Imbalance Protection (60)......Page 429
System Backup Protection (51V and 21)......Page 430
Out-of-Step Protection......Page 432
Abnormal Frequency Operation of Turbine-Generator......Page 433
Generator Breaker Failure......Page 435
Generator Tripping Principles......Page 436
Improvements in Protective Functions......Page 437
References......Page 438
Zones of Protection......Page 439
Primary and Backup Protection......Page 440
System ConIguration......Page 441
Inverse-Time Delay Overcurrent Relays......Page 442
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays......Page 443
Directional Overcurrent Relays......Page 444
Reactance Relay......Page 446
Pilot Protection......Page 447
Transient Stability and Out-of-Step Protection......Page 448
Voltage Stability and Undervoltage Load Shedding......Page 450
Special Protection Schemes (SPS)......Page 451
References......Page 452
Sampling......Page 453
Antialiasing Filters......Page 454
Phasors from Samples......Page 455
Symmetrical Components......Page 458
Parameter Estimation......Page 459
Least Squares Fitting......Page 460
DFT......Page 461
Differential Equations......Page 462
Kalman Filters......Page 464
Wavelet Transforms......Page 466
Neural Networks......Page 469
References......Page 470
9.6 Use of Oscillograph Records to Analyze System Performance......Page 471
10 Power System Transients......Page 482
First Strokes......Page 484
Ground Flash Density......Page 486
Current Peak Value......Page 487
Incidence of Lightning to Power Lines......Page 488
References......Page 489
10.2 Overvoltages Caused by Direct Lightning Strokes......Page 490
Direct Strokes to Unshielded Lines......Page 491
Direct Strokes to Shielded Lines......Page 493
Shielding Design......Page 495
Significant Parameters......Page 498
Unshielded Lines......Page 499
References......Page 502
10.3 Overvoltages Caused by Indirect Lightning Strokes......Page 503
Inducing Voltage......Page 504
Induced Voltage......Page 505
Green’s Function......Page 506
Evaluation of Green’s Function......Page 507
Induced Voltage Caused by Return-Stroke Current of Arbitrary Waveshape......Page 508
Induced Voltages on Multiconductor Lines......Page 511
Effects of Shield Wires on Induced Voltages......Page 512
Estimation of Outage Rates Caused by Nearby Lightning Strokes......Page 513
References......Page 516
Appendix I: Voltage Induced by Linearly Rising and Falling Return- Stroke Current......Page 517
Transmission Line Switching Operations......Page 518
Series Capacitor Bank Applications......Page 521
Shunt Reactor Applications......Page 522
10.5 Very Fast Transients......Page 523
Origin of VFT in GIS......Page 524
Internal Transients......Page 525
External Transients......Page 526
Modeling Guidelines and Simulation......Page 528
Computation of Internal Transients......Page 529
Computation of TEV......Page 530
Statistical Calculation......Page 532
Effects of VFT on Equipment......Page 533
References......Page 535
Sources and Types of Transient Voltage Excitation......Page 536
Complex Issue to Predict......Page 537
Initial Voltage Distribution......Page 538
Transient Voltage Distribution......Page 539
History......Page 540
Lumped Parameter Model......Page 541
Solution in the Time Domain......Page 542
Definitions......Page 543
Impedance vs. Frequency......Page 544
Definition of Inductance......Page 545
Transformer Inductance Model......Page 547
Definition of Capacitance......Page 548
Equivalent Capacitance for Disk Windings......Page 549
Copper Losses......Page 551
Core Losses......Page 553
Design......Page 554
Shell—Form......Page 555
Standard Winding Tests......Page 556
Design Margin......Page 557
Reduced Order Model......Page 559
References......Page 560
General Concepts......Page 562
Material Properties......Page 563
Electrode Dimensions......Page 564
Initial Transient Response from Capacitance......Page 565
Ground Electrode Impedance over Perfect Ground......Page 566
Analytical Treatment of Complex Electrode Shapes......Page 567
Numerical Treatment of Complex Electrode Shapes......Page 568
Treatment of Multilayer Soil Effects......Page 569
Layer of Finite Thickness over Insulator......Page 570
Design Recommendations......Page 571
References......Page 572
Appendix A: Relevant IEEE Grounding Standards......Page 573
Probability of Flashover ApfoR......Page 575
Multiple Gaps and Multiple Phases......Page 576
Voltage Waveshape......Page 577
Effect of Insulator......Page 578
Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Air Insulation......Page 579
Example:......Page 580
Application of Surge Arresters......Page 581
Examples of Surge Arrester Application (Non-Self-restoring Insulation)......Page 583
References......Page 584
11 Power System Dynamics and Stability......Page 587
Basic Concepts......Page 588
Rotor Angle Stability......Page 589
Voltage Stability......Page 591
Frequency Stability......Page 592
Historical Review of Stability Problems......Page 593
Consideration of Stability in System Design and Operation......Page 594
References......Page 595
11.2 Transient Stability......Page 596
The Swing Equation......Page 597
The PowerMAngle Relationship......Page 598
The Equal Area Criterion......Page 599
Modeling......Page 601
Analytical Methods......Page 602
Transient Stability Considerations in System Design......Page 604
Historical Perspective......Page 606
Power System Oscillations Classiged by Interaction Characteristics......Page 609
Conceptual Description of Power System Oscillations......Page 610
Summary on the Nature of Power System Oscillations......Page 611
Criteria for Damping......Page 612
Study Procedure......Page 613
Control Objectives......Page 614
Input Signal Selection......Page 615
Control Algorithm......Page 616
Adverse Side Effects......Page 617
Summary......Page 618
References......Page 619
Generic Dynamic LoadMVoltage Characteristics......Page 620
Load Flow Analysis......Page 622
Voltage Stability as Affected by Load Dynamics......Page 624
Mitigation of Voltage Stability Problems......Page 626
11.5 Direct Stability Methods......Page 628
Review of Literature on Direct Methods......Page 629
The Power System Model......Page 631
Review of Stability Theory......Page 632
The Transient Energy Function......Page 634
Determination of the Controlling UEP......Page 636
The BCU LBoundary Controlling UEPT Method......Page 637
References......Page 638
Review of Power System Synchronous Stability Basics......Page 641
Concepts of Power System Stability Controls......Page 644
Feedforward Controls......Page 645
Actuators......Page 646
Excitation Control......Page 647
Generator Tripping......Page 648
Fast Fault Clearing, High Speed Reclosing, and Single-Pole Switching......Page 649
Load Tripping and Modulation......Page 650
Reactive Power Compensation Switching or Modulation......Page 651
Fast Voltage Phase Angle Control......Page 652
Dynamic Security Assessment......Page 653
Experience from Recent Power Failures......Page 654
References......Page 655
Modeling Requirements......Page 658
Rotor Mechanical Model......Page 659
Generator Electrical Model......Page 660
Saturation Modeling......Page 661
Prime Mover Modeling......Page 662
Load Modeling......Page 664
Dynamic Equivalents......Page 666
References......Page 667
Dynamic Information Needs: The WSCC Breakup of August 10, 1996......Page 668
Background......Page 669
Direct Sources of Dynamic Information......Page 670
Monitor System Functionalities......Page 671
Event Detection Logic......Page 672
Monitor Architectures......Page 673
Monitor Network Topologies......Page 676
Networks of Networks......Page 681
WSCC Experience in Monitor Operations......Page 684
12 Power System Operation and Control......Page 686
12.1 Energy Management......Page 687
Power System Data Acquisition and Control......Page 688
Load Frequency Control......Page 690
Interchange Transaction Scheduling......Page 691
Energy Management......Page 692
Security Control......Page 693
Energy Control System......Page 694
References......Page 695
Economic Dispatch Depned......Page 696
EDC and System Limitations......Page 697
The Traditional EDC Mathematical Formulation......Page 698
EDC Solution Techniques......Page 699
An Example of Cost Minimizing EDC......Page 700
Unit Commitment Depned......Page 701
Factors to Consider in Solving the UC Problem......Page 702
Mathematical Formulation for UC......Page 703
The Importance of EDC to the UC Solution......Page 705
A GeneticxBased UC Algorithm......Page 706
Summary of Economical Generation Operation......Page 712
12.3 State Estimation......Page 713
Measurement Representations......Page 714
Solution Methods......Page 716
Network Topology Assessment......Page 719
Error Identixcation......Page 720
WLS State Estimation Process......Page 721
Defining Terms......Page 723
12.4 Optimal Power Flow......Page 724
Conventional Optimal Economic Scheduling......Page 725
Conventional OPF Formulation......Page 726
Application of Optimization Methods to OPF......Page 727
Conventional OPF Studies Including Load Models......Page 730
Security Constrained OPF Including Load Models......Page 731
SCOPF Including Load Modeling......Page 732
Operational Requirements for Online Implementation......Page 733
Discrete Modeling......Page 734
Detecting and Handling Infeasibility......Page 735
OPF-Based Transmission Service Pricing......Page 736
References......Page 737
12.5 Security Analysis......Page 739
Time Frames for Security-Related Decision (McCaulley et al., 1999)......Page 740
Models......Page 741
Standards......Page 743
Appendix B......Page 744
References......Page 745
13 Power System Planning (Reliability)......Page 746
13.1 Planning......Page 747
Defining a Competitive Framework......Page 748
Present View of Overall Problem......Page 749
Market Structure......Page 751
Fully Evolved Marketplace......Page 752
Computerized Auction Market Structure......Page 755
Capacity Expansion Problem Definition......Page 756
References......Page 758
Artificial Neural Networks......Page 762
Error BackNPropagation Learning Rule......Page 763
Short-Term Load Forecasting......Page 764
ANNSTLF Architecture......Page 765
Holidays and Special Days......Page 766
Performance......Page 768
Short-Term Price Forecasting......Page 769
Performance......Page 770
References......Page 771
Bulk Power System Reliability and Supply Point Reliability......Page 772
Reliability Criteria......Page 773
Reliability Criteria......Page 774
Reliability Measures - Reliability Indices......Page 775
Cost of Interruptions to Consumers......Page 776
Outage Models......Page 777
Contingency Enumeration Approach......Page 779
Comparison of Contingency Enumeration and Monte Carlo Simulation......Page 780
Application Examples......Page 781
Local Area Reliability......Page 782
References......Page 785
13.4 Power System Planning......Page 786
Arenas......Page 787
Options......Page 788
Uncertainties......Page 789
Attributes......Page 792
Setting Standards or Criteria......Page 793
LeastNCost Planning......Page 794
Making Choices......Page 795
13.5 Power System Reliability......Page 797
System Adequacy Assessment......Page 798
System Security Assessment......Page 800
Distribution System Reliability......Page 802
Typical Sequence of Events after an Overhead Distribution Fault......Page 803
Distribution Reliability Indices......Page 804
Storms and Major Events......Page 805
Component Reliability Data......Page 806
Transformer Failures......Page 807
Tree Contact......Page 808
Mice, Rats, and Gophers......Page 809
Annual Variations in Reliability......Page 810
References......Page 811
14 Power Electronics......Page 812
Thyristor and Triac......Page 813
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)......Page 814
Power Transistor......Page 816
Power MOSFET......Page 817
MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)......Page 818
Uncontrolled Rectifiers......Page 820
Mechanics of Diode Conduction......Page 821
Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits......Page 822
Full Wave Rectifiers......Page 825
Three-Phase Recti.ers (Half-Wave and Full-Wave)......Page 829
Influence of Three-Phase Rectification on the Power System......Page 831
Controlled Rectifiers......Page 837
Single-Phase H-bridge Recti.er Circuits with Thyristors......Page 840
Average Output Voltage......Page 845
HVDC Transmission Systems......Page 846
Power System Interaction with Three-phase Thyristor AC to DC Rectifier Systems......Page 847
14.3 Inverters......Page 849
Single Phase Inverters......Page 850
Three Phase Inverters......Page 852
Multilevel Inverters......Page 854
Line Commutated Inverters......Page 855
14.4 Active Filters for Power Conditioning......Page 856
Harmonic Current Sources and Harmonic Voltage Sources......Page 857
The Akagi-Nabae Theory......Page 859
Energy Storage Capacity......Page 861
Classification by System ConVguration......Page 862
Classification by Control Strategy......Page 865
System Configuration......Page 866
Operating Principle......Page 867
Control Circuit......Page 868
Experimental Results......Page 869
Present Status and Future Trends......Page 870
Shunt Active Filters for Three-Phase Four-Wire Systems......Page 871
The 48-MVA Shunt Active Filter for Compensation of Voltage Impact Drop,\r Variation,and Imbalance......Page 872
Acknowledgment......Page 873
References......Page 874
15 Power Quality......Page 876
15.1 Introduction......Page 877
The National Electric Code......Page 878
NEC Definitions:......Page 879
Personal Safety......Page 880
Noise Control......Page 881
Typical Wiring and Grounding Problems......Page 882
Insulated Grounds......Page 883
Missing Safety Ground......Page 884
Additional Ground Rods......Page 885
InsufNcient Neutral Conductor......Page 886
Case Study......Page 888
Case Study — Flickering Lights......Page 889
15.3 Harmonics in Power Systems......Page 892
15.4 Voltage Sags......Page 900
Voltage Sag Magnitude - Monitoring......Page 901
Origin of Voltage Sags......Page 902
Voltage Sag Magnitude N Calculation......Page 903
Propagation of Voltage Sags......Page 904
Critical Distance......Page 905
PhaseOAngle Jumps......Page 906
ThreeOPhase Unbalance......Page 907
Voltage Tolerance Requirement......Page 908
Single-Phase Rectifiers......Page 909
From Fault to Trip......Page 912
Changing the Power System......Page 914
Different Events and Mitigation Methods......Page 915
References......Page 916
Further Information......Page 917
15.5 Voltage Fluctuations and Lamp Flicker in Power Systems......Page 918
15.6 Power Quality Monitoring......Page 925
Selecting a Monitor......Page 926
Voltage......Page 927
Current Recordings......Page 930
Current Waveshape Disturbances......Page 931
Summary......Page 932