The Earth Inside and Out: Some Major Contributions to Geology in the Twentieth Century

Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Introduction: writing about twentieth century geology......Page 8
Fig. 1. Representation of the growth of a scientific sub-field, specialty, or .........Page 9
Table 1. Classification of tectonic theorists, according to A. M. C. Sengör......Page 13
Geology: from an Earth to a planetary science in the twentieth century......Page 24
Fig. 1. Two classes of stony meteorites. (a) The Tieschitz chondrite is .........Page 26
Fig. 2. An iron meteorite and a pallasite. (a) A fragment of the .........Page 28
Fig. 3. Ralph B. Baldwin (left) and Donald E. Gault in 1986 at an .........Page 34
Fig. 4. Harold C. Urey at the 1968 meeting of The Meteoritical Society .........Page 35
Fig. 5. Eugene Shoemaker in his office at the California Institute of .........Page 38
Fig. 6. The sites on the Moon sampled by the USA Apollo .........Page 40
Fig. 7. Lunar rock samples. (a) A lunar anorthosite metamorphosed to a .........Page 41
Fig. 9. An oval bead of green glass from the regolith at .........Page 43
Fig. 10. A hand specimen of highly vesicular olivine basalt, No. 15556, .........Page 44
Fig. 11. Two lunar impact craters of contrasting form and magnitude. (a) .........Page 45
Fig. 11. (b) A zap-pit, caused by the impact of a micrometeorite into .........Page 46
Fig. 12. On the USA meteorite collecting expedition of 1981–1982 to Antarctica, .........Page 52
Fig. 13. The Antarctic shergottite, Elephant Moraine 79001. (a) The uncut stone .........Page 54
Fig. 14. Lunar meteorite Allan Hills 81005, collected on 'the Apollo 18 .........Page 56
Table 1. Timescale of lunar history......Page 50
Table 2. Chronology of Earth's impact scars and the record of life......Page 58
From graphical display to dynamic model: mathematical geology in the Earth sciences in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries......Page 66
Fig. 1. Count of numbers of statistical graphs and thematic maps per .........Page 67
Fig. 2. Map showing earthquake damage of 14 January 1810, surrounding the .........Page 68
Fig. 3. Structure contours (solid lines, shown red in original) at 10 m .........Page 70
Fig. 4. Superimposed topographic profiles of the Harz mountain range, south of .........Page 72
Fig. 5. Line-graphs showing: Fig. 1' mean monthly height (m) for the years .........Page 73
Fig. 6. 'A chart representing the quantity of copper ore raised in .........Page 74
Fig. 7. Six scatter-plots with linear or curved lines fitted by eye .........Page 76
Fig. 8. Divided bar-chart showing 'successive systems of marine invertebral life': Z, Zoophyta; .........Page 78
Fig. 9. Different styles of multivariate graphics used to illustrate major element .........Page 79
Fig. 10. Normalized publication index for usage of different types of 1942 .........Page 80
Fig. 11. Time to uptake of 121 statistical methods (graphics or computation) .........Page 85
Fig. 13. Publication index (normalized using factors in Table 2, Appendix) for papers .........Page 91
Fig. 14. Publication index (normalized using factors in Table 2, Appendix) for papers .........Page 92
Table 1. Percentage of papers in Mathematical Geology and Computers & Geosciences .........Page 90
Table 2. Publication index: 1700–2000......Page 94
Norman Levi Bowen (1887–1956) and igneous rock diversity......Page 106
Fig. 1. Phase diagram of plagioclase feldspar at one atmosphere (Bowen 1913). .........Page 108
Fig. 2. Phase diagram of MgO–SiO[sub(2)] at one atmosphere (Bowen & Andersen .........Page 109
Fig. 3. Phase diagram of the ternary system MgO–FeO–SiO[sub(2)] at one atmosphere .........Page 112
Fig. 4. Phase diagram of 'petrogeny's residual system', NaAlSiO[sub(4)]–KAlSiO[sub(4)]–SiO[sub(2)] at one atmosphere .........Page 114
Metamorphism today: new science, old problems......Page 120
Fig. 1. Contact metamorphism of the Barr-Andlau granite, Vosges (Rosenbusch 1877).......Page 124
Fig. 2. Original map by George Barrow of progressive metamorphic zones in .........Page 126
Fig. 3. Illustrations by Alfred Harker (1932) of metamorphic textures (phyllites from .........Page 127
Fig. 4. 'Métamorphisme géosynclinal', as seen by Haug (1907–1911, fig. 48). Translation .........Page 128
Fig. 5. Map by Sederholm (1907) of granite/gneiss contacts, using the term .........Page 129
Fig. 6. Examples of the structural contribution brought by Wegmann (1929) to .........Page 130
Fig. 7. ACF diagram by Eskola (1920), used for the definition of .........Page 131
Fig. 8. Frontispiece of The Granite Controversy by H. H. Read (1957) (drawn by .........Page 133
Fig. 9. Modern presentation (Spear 1993) of major metamorphic facies on a P–T diagram.......Page 137
Fig. 10. The model of Miyashiro (1972) illustrating the relations between high-pressure .........Page 141
Metamorphism and thermodynamics: the formative years......Page 150
Fig. 1. Two sections of the contact metamorphic rocks of the Steiger .........Page 152
Fig. 2. The young Victor Moritz Goldschmidt, in the year of the .........Page 157
Fig. 3. ACF (i.e. aluminium, calcium, iron) diagram of the hornfels facies .........Page 158
Fig. 4. Temperature-pressure relations in the system CaCO[sub(3)]–CaSiO[sub(3)]–SiO[sub(2)] (Goldschmidt 1912a; reprinted by .........Page 159
Fig. 5. Pentti Eskola in 1916, one year after the introduction of .........Page 161
Fig. 6. Occurrence of a homogeneous body of cordierite–anthophyllite rock near Träskböle .........Page 162
Fig. 7. Letter from Victor Goldschmidt to Paul Groth, 2 August 1916, .........Page 164
Arthur Holmes' unifying theory: from radioactivity to continental drift......Page 174
Fig. 1. Continental drift, 1928. Reproduction of figures 2 and 3 from .........Page 183
Fig. 2. Arthur Holmes c. 1910, 1930 and 1960.......Page 188
Russian geology and the plate tectonics revolution......Page 192
Plate tectonics, terranes and continental geology......Page 206
Marie Tharp, oceanographic cartographer, and her contributions to the revolution in the Earth sciences......Page 222
Fig. 1. Heezen and Tharp are perusing a film transparency of their .........Page 223
Fig. 2. Method for preparing a physiographic diagram from the Floors of .........Page 226
Fig. 4. The World Ocean Floor Panorama, authors Bruce C. Heezen and Marie .........Page 229
Fig. 5. Physiographic diagram of the South Atlantic, authors Bruce C. Heezen and .........Page 231
Fig. 6. Section of a physiographic diagram of the North Atlantic ocean .........Page 232
From terrestrial magnetism to geomagnetism: disciplinary transformation in the twentieth century......Page 236
Sedimentology: from single grains to recent and past environments: some trends in sedimentology in the twentieth century......Page 248
Some personal thoughts on stratigraphic precision in the twentieth century......Page 258
Fig. 1. S. S. Buckman's diagram, showing diachronism in Toarcian sands in southern England .........Page 260
Fig. 2. Miall's Correlation 'experiment' showing the 40 Cretaceous sequence boundaries (Fig. 2. .........Page 267
Fig. 3. Whole-rock iridium concentrations across six metres of rock straddling the .........Page 270
Fig. 4. A cumulative diagram demonstrating 'pelagic sedimentation in the ocean', from .........Page 271
Fig. 5. The three differing 'completenesses' of the geological record, in percentages, .........Page 274
'As chimney-sweepers, come to dust': a history of palynology to 1970......Page 280
Fig. 3. Rudolph Jakob Camerer (1665–1721); from a portrait by an unknown artist.......Page 281
Fig. 4. The earliest illustrations of pollen grains, by J. F. Martinet (1779), reproduced .........Page 282
Fig. 5. A youthful Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795–1876); from a portrait by an unknown artist.......Page 283
Fig. 7. Otto Gunnar Elias Erdtman (1897–1973) on left, with William S. Hoffmeister .........Page 284
Fig. 8. John Rowley and Eszther Nagy at the International Palynological Congress .........Page 285
Fig. 9. Gideon Algernon Mantell (1790–1852).......Page 286
Fig. 10. Alfred Gabriel Nathorst (1850–1921), from portrait by an unknown artist.......Page 287
Fig. 13. Otto Christian August Wetzel (1891–1971): photo c. 1955 (by courtesy of .........Page 289
Fig. 15. Maria Lejeune-Carpentier (1910–1995) in her laboratory at the University .........Page 290
Fig. 16. Alfred Eisenack (1891–1982) on his seventy-fifth birthday (photograph by .........Page 291
Fig. 18. Roger Neves (right) talking with dinoflagellate and acritarch palynologist S. J. 'Jack' .........Page 293
Fig. 20. George Frederick Hart (right) expounds his ideas to Alfred Traverse .........Page 294
Fig. 22. The Danish palynologist Kaj Raunsgaard Petersen on left, and Australian .........Page 295
Fig. 23. Elena Dmitrievna Zaklinskaya (1910–1989), on left, with I. M. Pokrovskaya at the .........Page 296
Fig. 25. US Geological Survey palynologists Robert Haydn Tschudy (1908–1986) and Glenn .........Page 297
Fig. 27. Glenn Rouse at the International Palynological Congress, Utrecht, The Netherlands .........Page 298
Fig. 29. Harry Leffingwell (left) and Carboniferous palynologist Geoffrey Clayton, during the .........Page 299
Fig. 30. Isabel Clifton Cookson (1883–1973); uncredited photograph, reproduced in Baker (1973).......Page 300
Fig. 31. B. Srinivasin Venkatachala at the International Palynological Congress, Utrecht, The Netherlands .........Page 301
Fig. 32. Norman F. Hughes (1918–1994) on left, talking with the Norwegian palynologist .........Page 302
Fig. 33. William R. Evitt at the International Congress of Palynology, Utrecht, The .........Page 303
Fig. 35. Charles Collinson (photograph by the author. 10 September 1969).......Page 307
Collecting, conservation and conservatism: late twentieth century developments in the culture of British geology......Page 336
Fig. 1. Simplified diagram of the culture of late twentieth-century geology. .........Page 337
Fig. 2. Map showing locations of key sites mentioned in the text.......Page 341
Fig. 3. The Geologists' Association badge, before and after removal of the .........Page 342
Fig. 5. Geologists' Association members and other amateurs take advantage of fossil .........Page 348
Fig. 6. Lady Anne Brassey and Edward Charlesworth material rescued from the .........Page 351
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