The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics

The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics
Contents
List of Figures
List of Maps
List of Tables
List of Contributors
Acknowledgments
Germanic Languages: An Overview
	I.1 Introduction
	I.2 West Germanic
	I.3 North Germanic
	I.4 The Organization of This Handbook
	I.5 The Future Study of Germanic Languages
	References
Part I: Phonology
1 Phonological Processes in Germanic Languages
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Assimilation
	1.3 Dissimilation
	1.4 Epenthesis
	1.5 Deletion
	1.6 Coalescence, Vowel Reduction, Strengthening, and Weakening
	1.7 Other Processes
	References
	Online Reference
2 Germanic Syllable Structure
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Germanic Syllable Onsets
		2.2.1 Onsetless Syllables and Simple Onsets
		2.2.2 Complex Onsets
		2.2.3 sClusters
	2.3 Codas and Appendices
		2.3.1 Monosegmental Codas
		2.3.2 Biconsonantal Codas
		2.3.3 Appendices
	2.4 Syllable Boundaries and Syllable Contact
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 The Role of Foot Structure in Germanic
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Foot Formation and the Foot-Based Template in Germanic
		3.2.1 Moraic Trochees
		3.2.2 Syllabic Trochees
		3.2.3 Moraic Versus Syllabic Trochees
		3.2.4 Foot-Based Templates
	3.3 The Role of the Foot in Phonological Patterns
		3.3.1 Cluster Simplification in Medial Onsets
		3.3.2 Foot-Medial Consonant Lenition: Variability of Segmental Realization
		3.3.3 Vowel Reduction in Nonhead Branches of Feet
		3.3.4 Shaping Phonological Patterns: The Trochee as a Prosodic Template
	3.4 The Role of the Trochee in Shaping Lexical Classes and Patterns: German and Dutch Plurals
		3.4.1 Plurals in Standard German and Dutch
		3.4.2 Plurals in German Dialects
	3.5 Reinterpreting Stress-Based Analyses in Terms of the Foot: Vowel Balance
	3.6 Conclusion
	References
4 Word Stress in Germanic
	4.1 Germanic Languages and the Typology of Word Stress
	4.2 Germanic Languages with Rightmost Main Stress
		4.2.1 Placement of Rightmost Main Stress
		4.2.2 Placement of Secondary Stress
	4.3 Germanic Languages with Leftmost Main Stress: Icelandic and Faroese
	References
5 Quantity in Germanic Languages
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Contrastive Quantity for Consonants and Vowels
		5.2.1 Varieties of Swedish
		5.2.2 Varieties of Norwegian
		5.2.3 Swiss German (High and Highest Alemannic)
	5.3 Complementary Quantity
		5.3.1 Complementary Quantity in Swedish
		5.3.2 Complementary Quantity in Central Bavarian
	5.4 Contrastive Quantity for Vowels Only
		5.4.1 Vowel Quantity in German
		5.4.2 Vowel Quantity in English
		5.4.3 Vowel Quantity in Dutch
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6 Germanic Laryngeal Phonetics and Phonology
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 The Basics
	6.3 Theory and Analysis
	6.4 Comparative Overview
		6.4.1 East Germanic
		6.4.2 North Germanic
		6.4.3 West Germanic
			6.4.3.1 Yiddish
			6.4.3.2 West Frisian
			6.4.3.3 Central German Dialects
			6.4.3.4 Swiss German
	6.5 Further Issues
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
7 Tone Accent in North and West Germanic
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Tone Accent in West Germanic
		7.2.1 The Present-Day Accent Contrast
			7.2.1.1 Basic Patterns
			7.2.1.2 Synchronic Tonal Typology
			7.2.1.3 Synchronic Lexical Distribution
			7.2.1.4 Theoretical Analysis
		7.2.2 Diachronic Development
	7.3 Tone Accent in North Germanic
		7.3.1 The Present-Day Accent Contrast
			7.3.1.1 Basic Patterns
			7.3.1.2 Synchronic Tonal Typology
			7.3.1.3 Synchronic Distribution
			7.3.1.4 Theoretical Analysis
		7.3.2 Diachronic Development
	References
8 Intonation in Germanic
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 The Fundamentals of Intonation Research
		8.2.1 Analyzing Intonation
		8.2.2 The Form and Meaning of Intonation
		8.2.3 Central Terms
		8.2.4 Data Sources
	8.3 Declaratives
		8.3.1 German
		8.3.2 Dutch
		8.3.3 English
		8.3.4 Icelandic
		8.3.5 Danish
		8.3.6 Norwegian
		8.3.7 Swedish
	8.4 Interrogatives
	8.5 Special Contours
	8.6 Listener Judgments
	8.7 Outlook
	References
Part II: Morphology and Agreement Systems
9 Verbal Inflectional Morphology in Germanic
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Morphosyntactic Categories of Germanic Verbal Inflection
		9.2.1 Tense
		9.2.2 Subject Agreement
		9.2.3 Mood
			9.2.3.1 The Imperative
			9.2.3.2 The Subjunctive
		9.2.4 Voice
		9.2.5 Aspect
		9.2.6 Negation
		9.2.7 Nonfinite Verb Forms
	9.3 Types of Exponents
	9.4 Periphrastic Constructions
		9.4.1 The Perfect
		9.4.2 The Future
		9.4.3 The Conditional
		9.4.4 The Progressive and Other Aspectual Constructions
		9.4.5 Passive Constructions
	9.5 Inflectional Classes
		9.5.1 Strong Versus Weak Verbs
		9.5.2 Strong-Verb Ablaut Classes
		9.5.3 Weak Verbs
			9.5.3.1 Weak Verb Classes
		9.5.4 Preterite-Present Verbs
	9.6 Derived Verbs
	References
10 Inflectional Morphology: Nouns
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Proto-Germanic Noun System
	10.3 The North-Germanic Noun Systems
		10.3.1 Icelandic – Increase of Complexity by Accumulated Phonological Change
		10.3.2 Swedish – Decrease of Complexity
		10.3.3 Danish – Representing the Most Simplified Scandinavian Noun Inflection
	10.4 The West-Germanic Noun Systems
		10.4.1 German and Luxembourgish – Morphological Umlaut
		10.4.2 Frisian: Conservation of Breaking
		10.4.3 Dutch – Elimination of Umlaut, Prosodic Constraints
		10.4.4 English: The Simplest Noun Inflection System
	10.5 Findings and Further Topics
		10.5.1 Overall Complexity
		10.5.2 How to Deal with Umlaut – Different Strategies
		10.5.3 Relative Strength of Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes
		10.5.4 Gender As a Determinant of Noun Inflection
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Principles of Word Formation
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Compounding
		11.2.1 Linking Elements
		11.2.2 Affixoids
	11.3 Derivation
		11.3.1 Nonnative Affixation
		11.3.2 Affix Substitution
	11.4 Conversion
	11.5 Reduplication
	11.6 Prosodic Morphology
	11.7 Abbreviation and Blending
	11.8 Numerals
	11.9 Sources of Information
	References
12 Grammatical Gender in Modern Germanic Languages
	12.1 Grammatical Gender
	12.2 Lexical Gender Systems in Germanic
		12.2.1 Three-Gender Systems
		12.2.2 Two-Gender Systems
		12.2.3 Gender Loss
	12.3 Gender Assignment
	12.4 Pronominal Gender and Semantic Reorganization of Gender Systems
	12.5 The Interaction of Grammatical Gender and Inflection
	12.6 Conclusions
	References
13 Case in Germanic
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Inventories
	13.3 Distributions
	13.4 Interactions
	References
14 Complementizer Agreement
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 The Complementizer Agreement-Paradigm
	14.3 A Closer Inspection of the Relation between the CA-Paradigm and the Verbal Agreement Paradigm: Double Agreement
		14.3.1 Double Agreement
		14.3.2 The Defectivity of the CA-Paradigm
		14.3.3 Summary
	14.4 CA, Clitics and Pro-Drop
	14.5 CA and Linear Adjacency
		14.5.1 Agreement with Coordinated Subjects and External Possessors
		14.5.2 Interveners between Complementizer and Subject
	14.6 Syntactic Distribution of CA
	14.7 Summary
	References
Part III: Syntax
15 VO-/OV-Base Ordering
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Syntactic Correlates of the Base-Ordering Types
		15.2.1 Particle Verbs
		15.2.2 Resultatives
		15.2.3 The Order of Auxiliaries
		15.2.4 VP-Medial Adverbs
		15.2.5 A Constraint on Phrases Left-Adjoined to Head-Initial Phrases
		15.2.6 VP-Internal Scrambling
		15.2.7 Verbal Clusters in OV – Stacked VPs in VO
		15.2.8 Subject Expletives and Quirky Subjects
	15.3 Coming to a Theoretical End
	Bibliography
16 The Placement of Finite Verbs
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Verb Second (V2)
		16.2.1 V2 in All Main Clauses
		16.2.2 V2 in English Main Clauses
	16.3 V°-to-T° Movement
	16.4 Differences Between V°-to-T° Movement and V2
	16.5 Deriving V°-to-T° Movement
	16.6 V°-to-T° Movement and the OV-Languages
	16.7 Conclusion
	References
17 Germanic Infinitives
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Control and ECM
		17.2.1 Predicting Control Versus ECM?
		17.2.2 ECM in Germanic
	17.3 Restructuring
		17.3.1 West Germanic Restructuring
			17.3.1.1 Splitting and IPP in Dutch
			17.3.1.2 Splitting and Long Passive in German
		17.3.2 Scandinavian Restructuring
			17.3.2.1 Parasitic Morphology in Swedish (and beyond)
			17.3.2.2 Long Passive in Norwegian
	17.4 Restructuring ECM
	References
18 The Unification of Object Shift and Object Scrambling
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Effects on Output
	18.3 Pronominal Versus Nonpronominal Noun Phrases
	18.4 Verb Movement
	18.5 Remnant VP-Topicalization
	18.6 Argument Order Preservation
	18.7 Categorial Restrictions
	18.8 A′ and A′-Scrambling of Objects
	18.9 More on the Information-Structural Effect on Output
	18.10 Remaining Problems and Consequences
	References
19 Unbounded Dependency Constructions in Germanic
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Types of (Long) A’-Dependencies and Their Major Properties
		19.2.1 Shared Properties of Long A′-Dependencies
		19.2.2 Unbounded Dependencies – The Left Periphery
			19.2.2.1 Unbounded Dependencies and Inversion in the Final Clause
			19.2.2.2 Unbounded Dependencies and the Shape of the Left Periphery
	19.3 Basic Analytical Issues
		19.3.1 The Nature of the Landing Site
		19.3.2 Differences between Local and Long-Distance A′-Movement
	19.4 Alternatives to Long-Distance Movement
		19.4.1 Extraction from Verb-Second Clauses
		19.4.2 Scope Marking / Partial Movement
		19.4.3 Wh-Copying
		19.4.4 Resumption
		19.4.5 Resumptive Prolepsis
	19.5 Locality
		19.5.1 Clause-Bound Unbounded Dependencies in German
		19.5.2 Intervention Effects – Topic- versus Wh-Islands
		19.5.3 Absence of Island Effects in Mainland Scandinavian
		19.5.4 That-Trace Effects
	References
20 The Voice Domain in Germanic
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Analytic Passives
		20.2.1 Morphological Properties
			20.2.1.1 The Passive Participle
			20.2.1.2 The Auxiliary: Verbal versus Adjectival Passives
		20.2.2 Implicit Arguments and the By-Phrase
		20.2.3 Syntactic Variation with Analytic Passives
			20.2.3.1 Variation in Case Shift
			20.2.3.2 Variation in DP-Movement
				20.2.3.2.1 DP-Movement in Passives of Double Object Verbs
			20.2.3.3 Expletive Passive Constructions
		20.2.4 Impersonal Passives
		20.2.5 The Icelandic New Passive and Passives of Reflexive Verbs
	20.3 Scandinavian S-Passives
	20.4 Get-Passives
	20.5 Anticausatives
	20.6 Middles
		20.6.1 Canonical Middles
		20.6.2 Let-Middles
	References
21 Binding: The Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics of Reflexive and Nonreflexive Pronouns
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Anaphoric Elements in English and German
		21.2.1 Basic Complementarity
		21.2.2 A Brief Overview of Chomsky’s (1981, 1986) Binding Theory
		21.2.3 Noncomplementarity: Reflexive Pronouns Exempt from the Binding Theory?
	21.3 Anaphoric Elements Beyond English and German: SELF Versus SE and Possessive Anaphors
		21.3.1 Dutch
		21.3.2 Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish
		21.3.3 Icelandic
	21.4 Conclusion
	References
22 Verbal Particles, Results, and Directed Motion
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 The Syntax of Verbal Particles
		22.2.1 Morphology or Syntax?
		22.2.2 Word Order
		22.2.3 Word Class
		22.2.4 Argument Structure
		22.2.5 Theoretical Analyses
	22.3 Resultatives
	22.4 Directed Motion Constructions
	22.5 Concluding Remarks
	References
23 Structure of Noun (NP) and Determiner Phrases (DP)
	23.1 Introduction
		23.1.1 A First Overview
		23.1.2 NP: Noun Phrase
		23.1.3 NumP: Number Phrase
		23.1.4 AgrP: Agreement Phrase
		23.1.5 CardP: Cardinal Phrase
		23.1.6 DP: Determiner Phrase
		23.1.7 XP: Pre-determiners
	23.2 Germanic-Specific Phenomena
		23.2.1 Double Definiteness
		23.2.2 Inflectional Alternation
		23.2.3 Discontinuous DPs
		23.2.4 Spurious Indefinite Articles
		23.2.5 Doubly Filled DPs
	23.3 Summary
	References
Part IV: Semantics and Pragmatics
24 Modality in Germanic
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Defining and Delimiting Modality
	24.3 The Deontic (Root) – Epistemic Distinction
	24.4 Authority and Controllability
	24.5 Mood and Modality
	24.6 Morphosyntactic Markers of Modality
	24.7 Conclusion
	References
25 Tense and Aspect in Germanic Languages
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Tense
	25.3 The Reference of Tense Elements
	25.4 Aspect
	25.5 Complex and Periphrastic Tenses: Temporal and Aspectual Features
	25.6 Finite and Nonfinite Tenses
	25.7 The Present Perfect Puzzle: Remote and Immediate Past
	25.8 Conclusion
	References
26 Prepositions and Particles: Place and Path in English, German, and Dutch
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Figures and Grounds, Places and Paths, Functions and Arguments
	26.3 How Ps Express Places
		26.3.1 More About Places
		26.3.2 The Transitivity of Places
		26.3.3 The Complexity of Places
	26.4 How Ps Express Paths
		26.4.1 More About Paths
		26.4.2 The Transitivity of Paths
		26.4.3 The Complexity of Paths
	26.5 Conclusion
	References
27 Negative and Positive Polarity Items
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Lexical Properties of Polarity Sensitive Items
	27.3 Distribution of NPIs
	27.4 Varieties of NPIs
	27.5 The Nature of the Licensing Relation
	27.6 The Source of Polarity Sensitivity
	27.7 Positive Polarity Items
	27.8 Conclusion
	References
28 Grammatical Reflexes of Information
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Notions of Information Structure
		28.2.1 Focus/Background
		28.2.2 Given/New
		28.2.3 Topic/Comment
	28.3 Grammatical Reflexes of IS
		28.3.1 Prosodic Correlates of Information Structure
			28.3.1.1 Prosodic Structure
		28.3.2 The Role of Focus and Givenness
		28.3.3 The Role of Topic
	28.4 Syntactic Correlates of Information Structure
		28.4.1 Scrambling
		28.4.2 Leftward-Movements: Topicalization, Passivization, Dative Construction, Object-Shift
		28.4.3 Rightward Movements: Extraposition, Right-Dislocation, Heavy NP-Shift, Afterthought
		28.4.4 Pronominalization and Ellipsis
	28.5 Particles
	28.6 Conclusion
	References
Part V: Language Contact and Nonstandard Varieties
29 Second Language Acquisition of Germanic Languages
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Learner Varieties
		29.2.1 Word Order in German and Dutch
		29.2.2 The Basic Variety
	29.3 The Development of Word Order in L2 German
	29.4 The Acquisition of Finiteness
	29.5 L2 Psycholinguistic Research
		29.5.1 L2 Processing of Case Marking and Grammatical Role Assignment
		29.5.2 Grammatical Gender in L2 German and L2 Dutch
		29.5.3 Predictive Processing in L2 Learners
	29.6 Conclusion
	References
30 Urban Speech Styles of Germanic Languages
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 Contemporary Urban Speech Styles of Germanic Languages
	30.3 Structure
		30.3.1 Variation of the Verb-Second Constraint
		30.3.2 Variation of Grammatical Gender
		30.3.3 Phonetic Variation
		30.3.4 Lexical Features
	30.4 Perception Studies and Ascribed Identities
	30.5 Media and Popular Culture – Identity Work
	30.6 Conclusion
	References
31 The West Germanic Dialect Continuum
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 Netherlandic and Low German
		31.2.1 Varieties of Low Franconian
		31.2.2 Low German Dialects
	31.3 High German Dialects
		31.3.1 Central or Middle German Dialects
		31.3.2 Upper German Dialects
	31.4 Consonant Continuum: The High German Consonant Shift
		31.4.1 High German Consonant Shift in West Middle German
		31.4.2 High German Consonant Shift in East Middle German
		31.4. 3 High German Consonant Shift in Upper German
	31.5 Vowel Continuum
		31.5.1 Diphthongization of Medieval High Long Vowels /i:, u:, y:/ (written î, û, iu)
		31.5.2 Monophthongization of Medieval Diphthongs /iə, uə, yə/ (written )
		31.5.3 Unrounding of Front Rounded Vowels
	31.6 Morphological Continuum
		31.6.1 Apocope – Loss of Final Schwa
		31.6.2 Noun/Pronoun Case
		31.6.3 Expression of Past Time
		31.6.4 Plural Verb Endings
	31.7 Lexical Continuum
	31.8 Frisian Varieties
	31.9 Conclusion
	References
32 The North Germanic Dialect Continuum
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 The Origin and Development of the North Germanic Dialect Continuum
	32.3 Classification of the North Germanic Dialects
	32.4 Linguistic Distances between North Germanic Languages
	32.5 Mutual Intelligibility of North Germanic Languages and Dialects
	32.6 Conclusions and Desiderata for Future Research
	References
33 Heritage Germanic Languages in North America
	33.1 Introduction
	33.2 Phonology
	33.3 Morphology and Morphosyntax
	33.4 Syntax
		33.4.1 Word Order Variation
		33.4.2 Possessive Pronouns in Norwegian
	33.5 Semantics and Pragmatics
	33.6 Challenges and Controversies
	References
34 Minority Germanic Languages
	34.1 Introduction
		34.1.1 Identifying Minority Germanic Languages
		34.1.2 Sociolinguistic Typology of Minority Languages
	34.2 Minority Germanic Languages According to Type
		34.2.1 Unique, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Lower Silesian, Övdalian)
		34.2.2 Unique, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (Colonia Tovar German, Wymysorys)
		34.2.3 Unique, Noncohesive Indigenous Languages (Cimbrian, Mócheno, Scots)
		34.2.4 Unique, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Amish Alsatian German, Amish Swiss German)
		34.2.5 Nonunique, Adjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Limburgish, Low Saxon / Low German)
		34.2.6 Nonunique, Adjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Hunsrik, Hutterisch, Pennsylvania Dutch)
		34.2.7 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Frisian)
		34.2.8 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (Afrikaans)
		34.2.9 Nonunique, Nonadjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Plautdietsch, Yiddish)
		34.2.10 Local-only, Adjoining, Cohesive Indigenous Languages (Danish in Germany, German in Denmark and Belgium)
		34.2.11 Local-only, Adjoining, Noncohesive Immigrant Languages (Swedish in Finland)
		34.2.12 Local-only, Nonadjoining, Cohesive Immigrant Languages (German in Namibia)
	34.3 Minority Language Maintenance and Shift
	References
35 Germanic Contact Languages
	35.1 Contact Languages
	35.2 Pidgins
		35.2.1 Mediums of Interethnic communication (MICs) in the European Metropole
		35.2.2 Trade and Maritime Pidgins on the Mainland Coast of West Africa
		35.2.3 English-Lexified Trade and Maritime Pidgins in Asia and Pacific
			35.2.3.1 Chinese Pidgin English (China Coast Pidgin)
			35.2.3.2 Pacific Pidgin English (PPE)
			35.2.3.3 German in Namibia, China, and New Guinea
	35.3 Creoles
		35.3.1 English-Lexified Atlantic Creoles
			35.3.1.1 English Creoles in the Americas
			35.3.1.2 Caribbean English Creole (CEC)
			35.3.1.3 Suriname
			35.3.1.4 North America
			35.3.1.5 West Africa
		35.3.2 English-Lexified Pacific Creoles
			35.3.2.1 Australia
			35.3.2.2 Hawai‘i
		35.3.3 Dutch-Lexified Creoles in the New World
			35.3.3.1 Danish West Indies
			35.3.3.2 Guiana
		35.3.4 Unserdeutsch
	35.4 Extended Pidgins
	35.5 Bilingual Mixed Languages
	35.6 Noncanonical Contact Languages
	35.7 Concluding Remark
	References
Index