The Ainu Language

Contents
Preface
List of Abbreviations
Chapter 1. Introduction
	1.1 Dialects
	1.2 Genealogy
	1.3 Documentation
Chapter 2. History of Ainu Studies
	2.1 Views on Ainu up to the 19th Century
	2.2 Linguistic Research of the 20th Century
	2.3 Transcription and Study of Oral Literature
	2.4 Research on Place Names
Chapter 3. Phonology
	3.1 Phonemes
	3.2 Syllable Structure
	3.3 Accent
		3.3.1 Open Syllable
		3.3.2 Closed Syllable
		3.3.3 Exceptional Cases
	3.4 Phonological Alternation and Limits on Phonotactics
		3.4.1 Within a Syllable
		3.4.2 Between Syllables
Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements andSyntax
	4.1 Word Order
		4.1.1 Basic Sentence Structures
		4.1.2 Modifiers
		4.1.3 Postpositions
		4.1.4 Negatives and Prohibitives
		4.1.5 Word Order in Interrogative Sentences, Imperatives
		4.1.6 Change in Word Order
			4.1.6.6 Insertion
		4.1.7 Omission
	4.2 Parts of Speech
	4.3 Verbs
		4.3.1 Tense
		4.3.2 Number
			4.3.2.3 Irregular Forms
			4.3.2.4 Concepts of Singular and Plural
		4.3.3 Types of Verbs
			4.3.3.1 Complete Verbs
			4.3.3.2 Intransitive Verbs
			4.3.3.3 Transitive Verbs
			4.3.3.4 Copulas
		4.3.4 Verb Phrases that Function as Single Words
		4.3.5 Supplementary Verbs
	4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person
		4.4.1 Personal Pronouns
		4.4.2 Personal Affixes, Personal Forms
			4.4.2.3
				A. Personal Forms of Common Nouns
				B. Personal Forms of Locative Nouns
		4.4.3 Nominative-Accusative Personalization of Transitive Verbs
		4.4.4 Person
			4.4.4.1 First Person Singular
			4.4.4.2 First Person Plural
			4.4.4.3 Inclusive First Person Plural-Indefinite Plural
			4.4.4.4 Quotational Sentences and Oral Literature
			4.4.4.5 Second Person
			4.4.4.6 Respectful Second Person
			4.4.4.7 Third Person
		4.4.5 Use of the Indefinite Person
			4.4.5.2 The Starting Point for Acts of Passive Sentences
			4.4.5.3 First Person Plural Inclusive
			4.4.5.4 Second Person Polite Form
			4.4.5.5 First Person Forms in Quotes
		4.4.6 On the Indefinite Person Affixes
		4.4.7 Omission of Personal Pronouns
	4.5 Nouns
		4.5.1 Common Nouns
		4.5.2 Locative Nouns
		4.5.3 Dependent Nouns
		4.5.4 Nominalizing Words
	4.6 Adnorninals
		4.6.1 Adnominal Numerals
		4.6.2 Demonstrative and Referential Adnominals
	4.7 Adverbs
		4.7.1 Normal Adverbs
			4.7.1.1 Time
			4.7.1.2 Location; Direction
			4.7.1.3 Method
			4.7.1.4 Degree
			4.7.1.5 Conjecture; Concern
			4.7.1.6 Negation
		4.7.2 Post positional Adverbs
	4.8 Conjunctions
	4.9 Interjections
	4.10 Particles
		4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs
		4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles
		4.10.3 Case Particles (Postpositional Particles)
		4.10.4 Adverbial Particles
		4.10.5 Conjunctive Particles and Conjunctions
		4.10.6 Sentence-Final Particles
	4.11 Sentence Structure
		4.11.1 The Structure of Verb Phrases
			4.11.1.1 Intransitive verbs
			4.11.1.2 Noun phrases (object) + transitive verb
			4.11.1.3 Verb (phrase) + auxiliary verb
			4.11.1.4 Verb-modifier (adverbial phrase) + verb (phrase)
				A. Nouns that express time.
				B. Noun (phrase) + case particle/postpositional adverb
				C. Verb phrase/clause + conjunction/conjunctive particle
			4.11.1.5 Verb (phrase) + verb
			4.11.1.6 Verb + wa + supplementary verb
		4.11.2 The Structure of Noun Phrases
			4.11.2.1 Nouns, pronouns
			4.11.2.2 Noun-modifying word + noun (phrase)
				A. Adnominals
				B. Nouns
				C. Adverbs, some postpositional adverbs
				D. Noun phrase + case particle
				E. Verb phrase/clause
			4.11.2.3 Noun phrase+ numeral
			4.11.2.4 Sentence + nominalizer
			4.11.2.5 Examples with several layers of noun phrases
		4.11.3 Noun-like Use of Verb Phrases and Completion of Predicate Phrases
Chapter 5. Word Formation
	5.1 Compounding
		5.1.1 The Formation of Complete Verbs
		5.1.2 The Formation of Compound Intransitive Verbs
			5.1.2.1 Intransitive verb + auxiliary verb
			5.1.2.2 Modifier + intransitive verb
			5.1.2.3 Negative+ intransitive verb (only one example)
			5.1.2.4 Affiliative form of a noun (subject) + verb (predicate)
			5.1.2.5 Noun (object) + transitive verb
			5.1.2.6 Noun (complement) + ne COP
			5.1.2.7 Noun (subject) + transitive verb combining to create an intransitive verb
		5.1.3 The Formation of Compound Transitive Verbs
			5.1.3.1 Verb-modifier + transitive verb
			5.1.3.2 Intransitive verb + kar 'to make, to do'
			5.1.3.3 Noun (object) + ditransitive verb
		5.1.4 The Formation of Compound Nouns
			5.1.4.1 Noun+ noun
			5.1.4.2 Verb + noun
	5.2 Reduplication
		5.2.1 Reduplication of Stems and Roots
		5.2.2 VC Reduplication of a CVC Root
		5.2.3 Reduplication of the Final CV of a CVCV Root or Stem
	5.3 Derivation of Verbs
		5.3.1 Prefixes
			5.3.1.1 Nominal Prefixes
			5.3.1.2 Prefixes that Express Case Relationships
			5.3.1.3 Adverbial Prefixes
			5.3.1.4 Special Usage of Personal Prefixes
		5.3.2 Suffixes
			5.3.2.1 Pairs of Verbs with Shared Roots ( or Bases)
			5.3.2.2 Formation of Causative and Indefinite Causatives
			5.3.2.3 Suffixation to Onomatopoeic and Mimetic Roots
			5.3.2.4 Suffixes that Express the Aspect of Actions and Events
			5.3.2.5 Suffixes that Verbalize Nouns
	5.4 Derivation of Nouns
		5.4.1 Prefixes
		5.4.2 Suffixes
			5.4.2.1 Suffixes that attach to nouns
			5.4.2.2 Suffixes that attach to verbs and make nouns
		5.4.3 Conversion from Verbs
	5.5 Derivation of Adverbs
		5.5.1 Suffixes
		5.5.2 Prefix + Noun + Suffix
		5.5.3 Conversion from Verbs
Chapter 6. Methods of Expression
	6.1 Simple Declarative Sentences
		6.1.1 Negative Expressions
			6.1.1.1 Negative Verbs
		6.1.2 Expressive Nominalizers
	6.2 Expressions for Reporting Information
	6.3 Questions
		6.3.1 Yes or No Questions as Full Sentences
		6.3.2 Questions Formed Using He
		6.3.3 WH Questions
		6.3.4 Criticism
		6.3.5 Suggestions
	6.4 Responses
		6.4.1 Responses Using Reporting Pattern
		6.4.2 Responses Using Un
		6.4.3 Negative Responses
		6.4.4 Short Answers
	6.5 Demands
		6.5.1 Imperatives
		6.5.2 Requests
		6.5.3 Instructions
		6.5.4 Implied Demands
	6.6 Prohibition
	6.7 Invitations
	6.8 Permission
	6.9 Exclamations
	6.10 Expressions of Desire
	6.11 Greetings
		6.11.1 Meetings
		6.11.2 Departures
Chapter 7. Vocabulary
	7.1 Tendencies in Vocabulary
	7.2 Numerals
		7.2.1 On Counting
		7.2.2 Counters and Numbers with Units
		7.2.3 Expressing Large Amounts
	7.3 Demonstratives
		7.3.1 Spatial Demonstratives
		7.3.2 Conceptual Demonstratives
	7.4 Color Words
	7.5 Special Terminology
	7.6 Loan Words
Chapter 8. Place Names
Chapter 9. Literature
Chapter 10. Anotated Bibliography
	10.1 Dictionaries
	10.2 References
		10.2.1 General Works on the Ainu Language and Ainu Literature
		10.2.2 Works on the Genealogy of the Ainu Language
		10.2.3 Word Lists
		10.2.4 Research Books on Place Names
		10.2.5 Texts (oral literature that has been written down, poems, and biographies)
		10.2.6 Bibliographies
Index