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دانلود کتاب Textbook of Pediatric Neurosurgery
دانلود کتاب کتاب درسی جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان
مشخصات کتاب
Textbook of Pediatric Neurosurgery
ویرایش: 1st ed. 2020 نویسندگان: Concezio Di Rocco (editor), Dachling Pang (editor), James T. Rutka (editor) سری: ISBN (شابک) : 3319721674, 9783319721675 ناشر: Springer سال نشر: 2020 تعداد صفحات: 3763 زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 152 مگابایت
قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 42,000
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توجه داشته باشید کتاب کتاب درسی جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان نسخه زبان اصلی می باشد و کتاب ترجمه شده به فارسی نمی باشد. وبسایت اینترنشنال لایبرری ارائه دهنده کتاب های زبان اصلی می باشد و هیچ گونه کتاب ترجمه شده یا نوشته شده به فارسی را ارائه نمی دهد.
توضیحاتی در مورد کتاب کتاب درسی جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان
این کتاب با هدف ارائه راهنمای جامع برای مدیریت طیف وسیعی از اختلالات جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان که به ارائه مراقبت بهینه کمک می کند، وضعیت هنر در جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان را مستند می کند. دستورالعمل‌های عملی مفصل، با در نظر گرفتن پیشرفت‌های اخیر، در مورد درمان جراحی مغز و اعصاب ناهنجاری‌های مادرزادی مغز، بیماری‌های عروق مغزی، آسیب‌های سر و ترومای ستون فقرات، عفونت‌ها، اختلالات عملکردی، اختلالات مادرزادی و رشدی ستون فقرات، و تومورهای مغزی و نخاعی ارائه شده است. مرواریدها و تله ها برجسته می شوند و توجه به مفیدترین نکات و ترفندها جلب می شود. همچنین اطلاعات مربوط به موضوعات مرتبط، از جمله اصول تصویربرداری عصبی، پاسخ های فیزیولوژیکی نوزادان، نوزادان و کودکان به ترومای جراحی مغز و اعصاب، ارزیابی قبل از عمل، بیهوشی و مراقبت های ویژه، و سایر اشکال درمان گنجانده شده است. نویسندگان متخصصان مشهور در این زمینه هستند و متن با انبوهی از تصاویر با کیفیت بالا پشتیبانی می شود. راهنمای جراحی مغز و اعصاب کودکان برای جراحان مغز و اعصاب با تمام سطوح تجربه، و همچنین برای متخصصان اطفال، رادیولوژیست های عصبی، آسیب شناسان اعصاب، و انکولوژیست های عصبی ارزشمند خواهد بود.
توضیحاتی درمورد کتاب به خارجی
This book documents the state of the art in pediatric neurosurgery with the intention of providing a comprehensive guide to the management of the full range of pediatric neurosurgical disorders that will aid in the delivery of optimal care. Detailed practical instruction, taking into account recent advances, is provided on the neurosurgical treatment of congenital brain malformations, cerebrovascular diseases, head injuries and spinal trauma, infections, functional disorders, congenital and developmental spinal disorders, and brain and spinal tumors. Pearls and pitfalls are highlighted, and attention drawn to the most useful tips and tricks. Information is also included on relevant related topics, including the principles of neuroimaging, the physiological responses of newborns, infants, and children to neurosurgical trauma, preoperative evaluation, anesthesiology and intensive care, and other forms of therapy. The authors are renowned experts in the field, and the text is supported by a wealth of high-quality images. Handbook of Pediatric Neurosurgery will be of value for neurosurgeons of all levels of experience, as well as for pediatricians, neuroradiologists, neuropathologists, and neuro-oncologists.
فهرست مطالب
Textbook Accidental Head Traumas Accidental Head Traumas Introduction Epidemiology and Definitions Incidence and Demographics Pathophysiology Posttraumatic Ischemia Excitotoxicity Delayed Neuronal Death Cascades Cerebral Edema Management Initial Evaluation and Stabilization Imaging Indications for Emergent Surgical Management Management of Intracranial Pressure: Surgical Considerations Indications for ICP Monitoring and Selection of Devices Cerebrospinal Fluid Drainage Advanced Neuromonitoring Thresholds of ICP and CPP Hyperosmolar Therapy Hyperventilation Barbiturates Hypothermia Decompressive Craniectomy Management of Severe TBI in Children: Critical Care Perspective Sedation and Neuromuscular Blockade Seizure Incidence, Monitoring, Prophylaxis, and Treatment Corticosteroids Nutrition and Glucose Outcomes Conclusion References Antenatal Management Of Spinal Dysraphism Antenatal Management of Spinal Dysraphism-2: Antenatal Surgery of Myelomeningocele Introduction Definition and History Incidence, Prevalence, and Impact of Folic Acid Antenatal Diagnosis Prenatal Imaging Assessment: Ultrasound Prenatal Imaging Assessment: Fetal Magnetic Resonance Antenatal Treatment Maternal Aspects Maternal Anesthesia Previous and Current Fetal Anesthesia Intraoperative Fetal Hemodynamics Assessment Surgical Technique Maternal Aspects Postoperative Management Neurosurgical Aspects Intraoperative Transillumination Neonatal Period Comparison of In Utero and Postnatal Operations Future Prospects-Endoscopic Surgery Conclusions References Anterior Surgical Approaches To The Craniovertebral Junction and Upper Cervical Spine Anterior Surgical Approaches to the Craniovertebral Junction and Upper Cervical Spine Introduction History of Anterior Approaches to the Craniocervical Region Open Transoral Approach Endoscopic Endonasal Approach (EEA) Anterior Transcervical Approach The Principles of Management of Craniocervical Disorders Craniovertebral Evaluation - Instability Craniovertebral Evaluation - Deformity Craniovertebral Evaluation - Compression Pathology of Posterior Skull Base Tumors Chordoma Sarcoma Anterior Approaches: Surgical Considerations Extent of Access Endoscopic Endonasal Approach (EEA) EEA: Pathology and Indications Open Transoral Approach Transoral Approach: Pathology and Indications EEA and Open Transoral Compared Transcervical Approach Transcervical Approach: Pathology and Indications Anterior Approaches: Operative Technique Endoscopic Endonasal Approach (EEA) Open Transoral Approach Extended Approaches Anterior Cervical Approach Posterior Stabilization Following Anterior Approaches Posterior Stabilization After Transoral Surgery Posterior Stabilization After EEA Conclusion References Aqueductal Stenosis And Hydrocephalus Aqueductal Stenosis and Hydrocephalus Anatomy and Physiology Physiopathology of Aqueductal Stenosis and Obstructive Hydrocephalus Incidence, Etiology, and Classification Clinical Presentation Radiological Findings Treatment and Prognosis Outcome References Atlantoaxial Rotatory Fixation (AARF) Atlantoaxial Rotatory Fixation (AARF) Introduction Defining Normal C-C Rotation: The Physiological Motion Curve Imaging Technique Imaging Protocols and Motion Curve Normal C-C Rotation Motion Curve Analysis of Normal and Abnormal C-C Rotation Functional Anatomy of Atlantoaxial Rotation Normal and Abnormal Dynamics of C-C Rotation Coupling Movement Defining Abnormal C-C Rotation: The Pathological Motion Curves Diagnostic Imaging Protocol for AARF Motion Analysis Using Rotation Motion Curves Types of Motion Analysis Curves in Painful Torticollis Interpretation and Classification of AARF Non-AARF Motion Curves Clinical Study of AARF Etiology of AARF Age and AARF Clinical Manifestations in Acute and Subacute AARF Consequences of Untreated Chronic AARF Treatment Delay and Progression of AARF Compensatory Occipital C Laxity Chronic Insufficiency of Transverse Atlantal Ligament Management of AARF Treatment Protocol Reduction Stabilization Management Outcome Acute and Subacute AARF Patients Chronic AARF Patients Comparison of Course and Outcome of Treatment by AARF Type Comparison of Course and Outcome of Treatment by Chronicity of AARF The Best and the Worse Outcome Classes Recurrent AARF Recommended Treatment Algorithm for AARF Management of DGZ Patients Pathogenesis of AARF Disclosure References Basic Preoperative Evaluation And Intensive Care Management in the Pediatric Patients Basic Preoperative Evaluation, Anesthesiological and Intensive Care Management in the Pediatric Patients Introduction Cerebral Autoregulation Perioperative Preparation: Evaluation and Education of Patients Characteristics of the Anesthesia for Neurosurgery Practice of the Anesthesia for Neurosurgery: Anesthesia Induction Practice of the Anesthesia for Neurosurgery: Anesthesia Induction in Emergency, Preventing the Aspiration Pneumonitis Practice of the Anesthesia for Neurosurgery: Anesthesia Maintenance Preventing the Hypothermia Practice of the Perioperative Respiration Management Prevention of the Perioperative Hypoxia Hemostasis and Coagulation Basic Principles of Perioperative Sedation Management Propofol Infusion Syndrome Practice of the Perioperative Cardiovascular Management: ``Ohm´s Law´´ Conclusion References Birth-Related Head Traumas Birth-Related Head Traumas Introduction Cranial Injury Superficial Abrasion and Lacerations Caput Succedaneum Cephalohematoma Neonatal Subgaleal (Subaponeurotic) Hemorrhage Intracranial Injuries Skull Fracture Epidural Hemorrhage Subdural Hemorrhage Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH) Intraventricular Hemorrhage (IVH) Brachial Plexus Palsy Epidemiology and Etiology Risk Factors Classification Clinical Presentation Patient Evaluation and Diagnosis Surgical Treatment Alternative Treatment Complications Prognosis Other Birth-Related Trauma Conclusion References Blood-Sparing Techniques And The Perioperative Management of Blood Losses Blood-Sparing Techniques and the Perioperative Management of Blood Losses Introduction Preoperative Evaluation/Management Anemia Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation (PABD) Medications Intraoperative Management of Blood Losses Anesthetic Management Acute Normovolemic Hemodilution and Hypervolemic Hemodiluition Hypervolemic Hemodilution Surgical Technique Fluid Management and Blood Products Red Blood Transfusion Platelets Fresh Frozen Plasma and Cryoprecipitate Coagulation Antifibrinolytics References Bone Splitting And Materials Bone Splitting and Materials Introduction The Early History of Cranioplasty Techniques Surgical Preparation of a Cranial Defect Reconstruction Techniques and Material Autologous Bone Surgical Techniques for Replacing Autologous Craniotomy Bone Split-Thickness Calvarial Bone Grafts Tricks for Contouring Split-Thickness Calvarial Bone Grafts Rib Grafts Iliac Crest Bone Graft Summary Implantable Cranioplasty Materials Methyl Methacrylate Other Cranioplasty Materials Hydroxyapatite Silicone and Silastic Implants PEEK (Polyetheretherketone) Materials Cadaver Bone Conclusion References Brainstem Tumors Brainstem Tumors Introduction and Classification Schemes Diffuse Brainstem Tumors Background and the ``Typical DIPG´´ Biopsy for Diffuse Brainstem Lesions: Past and Present Advanced Imaging Diagnostics Conventional Therapeutic Strategies Progress in Novel Therapeutics Radiation Targeted Agents Immunotherapy Alternate Delivery Methods Non-diffuse Brainstem Tumors Focal Tumors Surgery Radiation Chemotherapy NF1 Tectal Tumors Dorsal Exophytic Tumors Cervicomedullary Tumors Conclusion Catastrophic Epilepsy And Hemispherotomy Catastrophic Epilepsy and Hemispherotomy Introduction Sturge-Weber Syndrome Hemimegalencephaly Rasmussen´s Encephalitis Perinatal Hemispheric Infarct Surgical Approach - Evolution and Variations of the Hemispheric Disconnection Patient Selection Preoperative Preparation Operative Procedure Positioning Incision, Craniotomy, and Dural Opening Surgical Approach - The 7 Steps Pearls and Pitfalls Postoperative Management Outcomes Conclusion Caudal Agenesis And Associated Spinal Cord Malformations Caudal Agenesis and Associated Spinal Cord Malformations Introduction Definitions and Related Terms Epidemiology and Etiology Embryological Background Teratogenic Insults to the CCM Clinical Manifestations Radiologic Classification of Bony Caudal Agenesis Clinical Presentations Mechanism of Neurological Manifestations Physical and Neurological Examinations Diagnostic Workup Treatment Outcomes Conclusions References Cavernomas Cavernomas Introduction: Terminology and Classification Epidemiology Etiology Pathology Location and Related Clinical Picture The Problem of Epileptogenesis Natural History Radiological Presentation Management Conservative Management Indications for Surgery and Timing Main Surgical Issues Surgery for Brainstem CMs General Aspects Anesthesia and Monitoring Positioning of the Patient Selection of the Surgical Approach Surgical Approaches to the Midbrain Surgical Approaches to the Pons Surgical Approaches to the Medulla Selection of the Entry Zone into the Brainstem Microsurgical Dissection Technique Clinical Results Complications Rebleeding Nonsurgical Treatments and Conclusions References Cerebellar Astrocytomas Cerebellar Astrocytomas Introduction/Overview Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Imaging and Diagnosis Classification and Molecular Biology Surgical Intervention Adjunctive Therapies Uncommon Variants Prognosis and Quality of Life Follow-Up and Surveillance Conclusion/Future Directions References Cerebral Gliomas Cerebral Gliomas Introduction Epidemiology Histopathologic Classification Astrocytomas Pilocytic Astrocytomas Diffuse Astrocytomas Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma Oligodendroglioma Glioneuronal Tumors Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma Ependymoma The 2016 World Health Organization Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System Molecular Pathogenesis Pediatric Astrocytomas Pilocytic Astrocytomas Diffuse Astrocytoma High-Grade Gliomas Ependymoma Diagnostic Studies Surgical Treatment Anesthesia, Positioning, and Surgical Approaches Outcome, Prognostic Factors, and Adjuvant Therapy Low-Grade Gliomas (Pilocytic and Diffuse Astrocytomas) Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytomas Oligodendroglioma High-Grade Glioma Conclusion References Cerebrocutaneous Melanosis Cerebrocutaneous Melanosis Introduction Historical Background Pathogenesis Associated Syndromes Clinical Presentation Cutaneous Features Neurological Features Diagnostic Investigations Radiology Histology Diagnosis Prognosis Management Conclusion References Chiari I Malformation And Associated Syringomyelia Chiari I Malformation and Associated Syringomyelia Introduction Terminology Defining Chiari I Malformation Pathophysiology Craniocerebral Disproportion Raised Intracranial Pressure Craniovertebral Malformation Craniosynostosis Chiari Associated Syringomyelia and Scoliosis Syringomyelia Scoliosis Clinical Presentation Classical Local Compression CSF Obstruction Atypical Incidental Investigation of CIM MRI Advanced MRI Techniques Phase Contrast MRI Cine MRI Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) Respiratory Sleep Studies Evaluation of Bulbar Function Intracranial Pressure Monitoring Treatment Nonoperative Management Surgical Management Foramen Magnum Decompression Cranial Vault Expansion Craniovertebral Fixation Summary of Operative Technique Might be Indicated Outcomes for CIM Outcomes Scales Clinical Outcomes Surgical Complications Conclusions References Chiari Malformations Types II, III, IV, and V Chiari Malformations Types II, III, IV, and V Introduction Definition and Classification Chiari Type II Malformation Epidemiologic and Etiologic Aspects Pathogenesis Pathological Findings Macroscopic Findings Microscopic Findings Clinical Picture Neonatal Period and Early Infancy From Late Infancy to Adulthood Radiological Diagnosis Antenatal Diagnosis Postnatal Diagnosis Other Diagnostic Tools Special Considerations on Two Frequent Associated Diseases Hydrocephalus Syringomyelia Management Indications for Surgery Surgical Decompression Results and Prognosis Chiari Type III Malformation Definition and Epidemiology Pathogenesis Pathological Anatomy Diagnosis Clinical Picture Management Prognosis Chiari Type IV Malformation Chiari ``Type V´´ Malformation References Choroid Plexus Tumors Choroid Plexus Tumors Introduction Epidemiology Pathology Molecular Biology, Pathogenesis, and Correlation with Clinical Progression Presentation Imaging Initial Management Preoperative Embolization Surgical Management Surgical Complications Outcomes in Large Series and Meta-Analyses Chemotherapy Radiotherapy Future Perspectives Summary of Evidence-Based Management Classification Of Spinal Dysraphic Malformations According to Embryogenesis: Grastrulation Defects and Split Cord Malformation Classification of Spinal Dysraphic Malformations According to Embryogenesis: Gastrulation Defects and Split Cord Malformation Introduction Classification of Spinal Dysraphic Malformations According to Embryogenesis Embryogenesis of SCM: Basic Error in Gastrulation Progenitor Cell Differentiation and Classification of SCM Ectodermal Derivatives and Persistence of the Dorsal Endomesenchymal Tract Persistence of the Ventral Endomesenchymal Tract, Ventral Tethering, and Associated Intestinal Anomalies Composite SCMs and Multipe SCMs Anomalous Interaction Between Hemineural Plates and Heminotochord: Associated Myelomeningocoele and Hemi-myelocoele Midline Healing of Split Notochord and Split Neural Plate Clinical Features and Indications for Surgery Preoperative Neuroimaging Operative Technique Type I SCM Type II SCM Special Circumstances Composite Split Cord Malformations Ventral Tethering and Associated Intestinal Anomalies Associated Myelomeningocele and Hemimyelocele Complications and Precautions Neurologic Injury Cerebrospinal Fluid Leakage Postoperative Bladder Management Retethering in SCM References Complications Of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy Complications of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy Introduction History Surgical Technique Indications Age at Presentation Etiology of Hydrocephalus Radiological Findings Complications Preoperative Instrumentation Intraoperative Vascular Injury Neural Injury Technical Failure Postoperative Subdural Effusion and Hematoma Infection Seizures Late Failure and Sudden Death CSF Fistula and Pneumocephalus Conclusion References Complications Related To The Treatment of Hidrocephalus with Extrathecal Cerebral Spinal Fluid Shunts Complications Related to the Treatment of Hydrocephalus with Extrathecal Cerebral Spinal Fluid Shunts Introduction Incidence and Timing of Shunt Complications Factors Implicated in Shunt Complications Interaction Between Material Used for Manufacturing CSF Shunts and the Host CSF Shunt Failures: Proximal Catheter, Valve, Distal Catheters Proximal Catheter Failure Surgical Recommendation to Remove an Obstructed Ventricular Catheter Body of the Shunt Distal Catheter Failures Calcifications of the Material of the Shunt Shunt Infection Hyperdraining CSF Shunts Trapped Fourth Ventricle Vascular Complications Complications Related to Lumbo-Peritoneal Shunts Clinical Symptomatology and Diagnosis of Shunt Complication Test of the Valve and Predictors of Shunt Malfunction Shunt Failures and Mortality CSF Shunt Revision and Evolution of IQ in Shunted Children Conclusions References Cortical Dysplasia Cortical Dysplasia Introduction Classification Focal Cortical Dysplasia (fCD) Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type I Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type II Focal Cortical Dysplasia Type III Dual Pathology Selection of Patients for Surgery Indications for Invasive Monitoring Grids and Strips Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) Surgical Approaches to Cortical Dysplasia Glial and Glioneuronal Tumors Associated with CD - Type IIIb Hemispheric Surgical Entities (Rasmussen´s Encephalitis/Sturge-Weber Syndrome/Vascular Malformations/Cortical Dysplasia) Outcome Conclusions References Craniopagus Twins Craniopagus Twins Introduction Clinical Workup Neuroradiology and Imaging Studies Contraindications Preoperative Preparation Staging the Surgical Separation Postoperative Care Conclusion References Craniopharyngioma Craniopharyngioma Introduction and Historical Perspective Embryology and Pathology Introduction Embryology and Histopathology CTNNB1 and β-Catenin β-Catenin and the WNT/Wingless Pathway β-Catenin and the WNT/Wingless Pathway in ACP Disordered Odontogenesis and the MAP/ERK Pathway Inflammation and Preliminary Data Regarding Clinical Correlation PD-1/PD-L1 Sonic Hedgehog Pathway Conclusion Epidemiology Presentation Imaging Surgical Approaches Predominantly Cystic Tumors Radioactive Phosphorus and Yttrium Bleomycin Intracavitary Interferon Solid Craniopharyngioma Craniotomy Subfrontal Approach Pterional Approach Transnasal Endoscopic Surgery Surgical Complications Role of Radiation Therapy Conclusion Craniosynostoses Lessons Learned from Animal Models Craniosynostoses: Lessons Learned from Animal Models Introduction Mouse Models of Craniosynostoses Mouse Model Mimicking Pfeiffer Syndrome (Fgfr1P250R/+) Mouse Models Mimicking Apert Syndrome (Fgfr2S252W/+ and Fgfr2P253R/+) Mouse Models Mimicking Crouzon Syndrome (Fgfr2C342Y/+ and Fgfr2W290R/+) Mouse Model Mimicking Beare Stevenson (Fgfr2Y394C/+) Mouse Model Mimicking Muenke Syndrome (Fgfr3P244R/+) Mouse Model Mimicking Saethre-Chotzen (Twist+/-) Mouse Model of Isolated Sagittal Synostosis (CC/+) Mouse Model of Boston Type (Msx2 Transgenic) Mouse Model of Trigonocephaly (Frem1ba, Frem1Qbrick) Mouse Model of EFNA4 Nonsyndromic Coronal Synostosis (Epha4-/-) Mouse Model of Greig Cephalopolysyndactyly (Gli3Xt-J/Xt-J) Mouse Model of FGF3/4 Syndromic Pansynostosis (Bulgy-Eye) Zebra fish as a Model for Craniosynostoses References Craniosynostosis Genetic Basis Genes, Chromosomes, and Resulting Syndomes Craniosynostosis: Genetic Basis, Genes, Chromosomes, and Resulting Syndromes Introduction Genetics of CS Molecular Genetics: CS-Associated and Candidate Genes FGF Signaling and Receptors TWIST1 TCF12 Ephrin Genes and Related Pathway ERF MSX2 and Homeobox Genes ZIC1 RUNX2 IL11RA GLI3, RAB23, and Primary Cilium Signaling Hotspot Chromosomal Loci in CS Setting a Genetic Diagnostic Framework Conclusion References Craniosynostosis Repercussions On Schooling, Inclusive Education, and Siblings Craniosynostosis: Repercussions on Schooling, Inclusive Education, and Siblings Introduction Confirmation of the Diagnosis of Craniosynostosis The Place of the Dysmorphic Child Within the Family The Expression of the Parental Needs Quality of Life Differences Between Simple and Complex Forms Conclusion References Dandy Walker Malformations/Variants Dandy-Walker Malformations/Variants Introduction Classification of Posterior Fossa Cystic Collection ``Dandy-Walker Complex´´ Posterior Fossa Arachnoid Cysts Prominent Cisterna Magna- Megacisterna Magna Pathological Findings Fourth Ventricle and ``Cyst´´ Wall Cerebellum Pathogenesis and Etiology The ``Closed Foramina´´ Theory Embryology Dysraphic and Hydrodynamic Theory Associated Malformations Genetic Factors ``Acquired´´ Dandy-Walker Malformation and Blake´s Pouch Cyst Pathophysiology of Hydrocephalus Atresia of Luschka and Magendie Aqueductal Stenosis Arachnoiditis Venous Hypertension Clinical and Neuroradiological Features Epidemiology and Clinical Features Clinical Aspects of Blakes Pouch Cyst and ``Dandy-Walker Variant´´ Radiology Radiological Features of Blake´s Pouch Cyst Treatment Cyst Membrane Excision Shunts: Ventriculo-Peritoneal and ``Y´´ Shunt Shunts: Posterior Fossa Shunt Third Ventriculostomy Summary of Therapeutic Options Treatment of Blake´s Pouch Cyst Outcome and Prognosis Conclusion References Decompressive Craniectomy In Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Decompressive Craniectomy in Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Introduction Background Indications Technique Complications Crainioplasty Current Practice Decompressive craniectomy for control of ICP Decompressive crainectomy for improving outcome Indications from the Adult Guidelines Conclusion References Deformational Posterior Plagiocephaly Deformational Posterior Plagiocephaly Introduction: Definition of the Disease and Aims of the Chapter Epidemiological and Etiological Considerations The Size of the Problem Risk Factors Diagnostic and Clinical Aspects Clinical Presentation and Differential Diagnosis Cephalometric Measurements and Modern Imaging Guidelines for the Diagnosis Associated Sequelae Management Prevention Treatment Options The Role of the Neurosurgeon Outcome of the Different Treatments Development Of The Central Nervous System Development of the Central Nervous System Introduction The First Steps of Human Development Gastrulation Mesodermal Induction in Amphibians Mesodermal Induction in Mouse Development of Hensen´s Node and Primitive Streak Ingression from the Epiblast Definitive Endoderm Formation Mesoderm Formation Neural Induction Neurulation Primary Neurulation Shaping of the Neural Plate Bending of the Neural Plate Furrowing Folding Dynamics of Neural Tube Closure Secondary Neurulation Descriptive Studies in Different Species Experimental Study of the Fate of the Tail Bud in Avian Embryo Continuity Between Primary and Secondary Neurulations Junctional Neurulation Ventro-dorsal Polarization of the Spinal Neural Tube The Pioneering Work of Henny van Straaten´s Team (Maastricht, Netherlands) Sonic Hedgehog and Ventralization Wnt, BMP, and Dorsalization Ventro-dorsal Subdomains of the Spinal Neural Tube Rhombomeres Rhombomeres as Anatomical Subunits Rhombomeres as Developmental Segments Segmental Expression of Genes in the Rhombencephalon Genes and Developmental Control of Rhombomeres The Kreisler Mouse Knockout of the Hox a1 Gene Knockout of Hoxb1 Gene Control of the Identity of Rhombomeres by Factors from the Environment Cerebellum Mesencephalon Versus Metencephalon The Isthmus as a Secondary Organizer Morphogenetic Movements of the Cerebellar Primordia The Two Germinal Layers of the Cerebellum The Ventricular Germinal Zone The Rhombic Lip Development of Cerebellar Folia Interplay Between Cerebellum and Meninges The Roof of the Fourth Ventricle The Prosomeric Model: Embryonic Segmentation of the Prosencephalon Development of the Cerebral Neocortex Formation of the Preplate Constructing the Cortical Plate Origin of the Cells That Will Populate the Cortical Plate The Germinative Dorsal Telencephalic Zone Radial Glial Cells as Neuronal Progenitors Symmetric Versus Asymmetric Mitoses Subventricular Zone: A New Neurogenic Region Migration from the Ventricle to the Cortex Cerebral Gyration Development of the Rachis The Skull The Base of the Skull The Base of Skull as a Whole The Occipital Bone Human Data Experimental Data The Vault of Skull Conclusion References Embryology Classification And Surgical Management of Bony Malformations of the Cranio vertebral Junction Embryology, Classification, and Surgical Management of Bony Malformations of the Craniovertebral Junction Introduction Embryology of the Craniovertebral Junction The Presomitic Stage Primary Segmentation: Somitogenesis Differentiation of the Somitic Mesenchyme ``Resegmentation´´ of the Sclerotome Special Developmental Features of the CVJ Occipital Somites (Somites 1-4) and the Proatlas First Three Cervical Somites (Somites 5-7) Axial Sclerotomes Lateral Sclerotomes Genetic Control of CVJ Development Hox Genes: The Control of Rostrocaudal Specification Pax 1: The Resegmentation Gene Classification of Bony Malformations of the CVJ Disturbance of the Axial Component of Occipital Sclerotomes, Proatlas, and C and C Sclerotomes: Anomalies of the Central Pivot Odontoid Dysgeneses Aplasia/Hypoplasia of the Axial Sclerotome of Proatlas and First Cervical Sclerotome: Agenesis and Hypogenesis of Odontoid Com... Disturbance of the Intervertebral Boundary Mesenchyme of Proatlas and First Two Cervical Sclerotomes: Os Odontoideum and Ossic... Etiology Os Odontoideum Ossiculum Terminale Persistens Clinical Significance Abnormal Resegmentation of Proatlas Centrum: Os Avis Embryogenesis Clinical Significance Failure of Midline Integration of Basal Dental Segment: The Bifid Dens Etiology Clinical Significance Basioccipital Dysgeneses Failure of Midline Integration of Basioccipital Primordium: Bifid Clivus Basilar Impression, Platybasia, Retroflexed Dens, and Basilar Invagination Etiology Hindbrain Herniation in Basioccipital Dysgenesis Clinical Significance of Basilar Impression, Basilar Kyphosis, and Associated Chiari Disturbances of the Lateral Sclerotomes and Hypochordal Bows of Proatlas and C Sclerotome: Anomalies of the Surrounding Ring S... Anomalies of Proatlas Hyperplasia of the Proatlas Hypochordal Bow: Third Occipital Condyle Embryogenesis Clinical Significance Hyperplasia of Exoccipital Sclerotome: Hypertrophic Occipital Condyle Assimilation of Atlas: Non-resegmentation of the Proatlas Sclerotome Embryogenesis Clinical Significance Unfused Occipital Condyle and Clivus: Posterior Homeotic Transformation Anomalies of the C Resegmentated Sclerotome Aplasia and Hypoplasia of the C Hypochordal Bow: Anomalies of Anterior Atlantal Arch Aplasia and Hypoplasia of the Lateral C Sclerotome: Anomalies of Posterior Atlantal Arch Stability of the C-C Complex in C Arch Dysplasia Aplasia and Hypoplasia of the Lateral C Sclerotome: Anomaly of the C Lateral Mass Complete Hemi-aplasia of the C Sclerotome: Hemi-agenesis of the Anterior and Posterior C Rings, Latral Mass, and Odontoid Proc... Combined Dysplasia of the Hypochordal Bow and Lateral Sclerotome of C-Combined Anterior and Posterior Atlantal Arch Defects Bifid Ventral and Dorsal Atlantal Arches References Empyemas And Brain Abscesses Empyemas and Brain Abscesses Introduction Epidemiology of Suppurative Intracranial Infections Pathogenesis Sinusitis Mastoiditis Meningitis Congenital Heart Disease Other Predisposing Conditions Brain Abscess Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Evaluation Initial Evaluation and Lab Studies Radiographic Studies Brain Abscess Epidural Abscess and Subdural Empyema Bacteriology Brain Abscess and Epidural Abscess Subdural Empyema and Epidural Abscess Treatment Antimicrobial Therapy Anticonvulsants Corticosteroids Surgery Brain Abscess Indications Surgical Treatment Craniotomy Abscess Aspiration Medical Therapy Subdural Empyema Indications Epidural Abscess Surgery for Associated Conditions Prognosis Morbidity and Mortality Neurologic Outcome and Seizures Conclusion References Encephalitis Encephalitis Introduction Viral Encephalitis Clinical Manifestations of Viral Encephalitis Diagnostic Investigations Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis Description of Viral Structure Disease Classification and Clinical Manifestations HSV-Specific Investigations HSV-Specific Treatment Outcome Arbovirus Encephalitis Enterovirus Encephalitis Traveling and Immunization Neurosurgical Implications Brain Tissue Sampling Management of Increased Intracranial Pressure Conclusion References Encephalocele, Meningocele, And Dermal Sinus Encephalocele, Meningocele, and Dermal Sinus Encephalocele Introduction Embryogenesis Pathogenesis Epidemiology Aetiology Pathology Syndromes and Encephalocele Classification of Encephaloceles Imaging Occipital Encephaloceles Surgery for Occipital Encephalocele Anterior Encephaloceles Management of Sincipital Encephalocele Management of Basal Encephalocele Prognostic Factors in Encephalocele Meningoceles Introduction Embryology Pathology Etiology Clinical Features Treatment Options Repair Just after Birth Repair Technique in the Newborn Pearls Repair in Older Children Repair in Children with Open Placode Presented Late Hydrocephalus Treatment with Myleomenigocele Repair Spinal Dermal Sinus Introduction Embryology Pathology Clinical Presentation Investigations Differential Diagnosis Surgery Follow Up Conclusion References Encephalocraniocutaneous Lipomatosis Encephalocraniocutaneous Lipomatosis Introduction: Incidence and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnosis Management Conclusions References Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy: Technique Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy: Technique Position and Skin Incision (Fig. 1) Cranial Parameters (Fig. 1) Key Points for Endoscopic Orientation Inside the Frontal Horn of the Lateral Ventricle (Figs. 2 and 3) Access and Endoscopic View of the Third Ventricle Site of the Stoma Subtraction of the Endoscope and Closure References Endoscopic Treatment Of Craniosynostosis Endoscopic Treatment of Craniosynostosis Scaphocephaly Surgical Technique Anterior Plagiocephaly Surgical Technique Trigonocephaly Surgical Techniques Metopic Suturectomy Complete Fronto-Orbital Osteotomy Controversies: Discussion Conclusion References Endoscopic Treatment Of Hydrocephalus Through Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy Endoscopic Treatment of Hydrocephalus Through Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy Introduction Historical Background Radiological Evaluation of Ventricular Anatomy Neuroendoscopic Instrumentation Optic Devices Flexible Fiberscopes Steerable, Flexible Fiberscopes Rigid Fiberscopes Rigid Rod Lens Endoscopes Videoscope Camera and Monitor Neuronavigation Indications Pure Obstructive Hydrocephalus Results of ETV in Patients with Primary and Secondary Aqueductal Stenosis Hydrocephalus in Posterior Cranial Fossa Tumors Hydrocephalus with Possible Subarachnoid Spaces Impairment Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus of Premature Infants Postinfectious Hydrocephalus Results of ETV in Infants and Children with Postinfectious Hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus Associated with Dandy-Walker Syndrome Constrictive Hydrocephalus Results of ETV in Myelomeningocele Patients How to Evaluate the Outcome of ETV Complications Intraoperative Complications Immediate Postoperative Complications Neurological and Endocrinological Morbidity Mortality Conclusion References Ependymomas Ependymomas Introduction Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Intracranial Ependymoma Spinal Ependymoma Imaging Intracranial Ependymoma Spinal Ependymoma Histology Surgical Treatment Intracranial Ependymoma Supratentorial Posterior Fossa Spinal Ependymoma Complication Avoidance Intracranial Ependymomas Spinal Ependymomas Adjuvant Therapies Radiation Therapy Chemotherapy Immunotherapy Tumor Recurrence Outcomes Molecular Subtypes Conclusion References External CSF Shunts External CSF Shunts Introduction Historical Perspective Indications of EVD Surgical Technique EVD Placement Guidance Approaching the Ventricle The Place Where the Procedure Is Done Surgical Steps EVD-Related Complications EVD-Related Infection EVD Infection Risk Factors and Measures to Avoid It Hemorrhagic Complications EVD Obstruction and Displacement Postoperative EVD Cares Conclusions Bibliography Extratemporal Lobe Epilepsy In Children: Localization and Outcomes After Surgery Extratemporal Lobe Epilepsy in Children: Localization and Outcomes After Surgery Introduction Workup and Investigation of the Child with ETLE Prolonged Video EEG Recording Neuroimaging Modalities Intracranial Invasive Monitoring Intracranial Video EEG (IVEEG) Monitoring Resective Surgery Neurosurgical Management of ETLE Subtypes Occipital Lobe Epilepsy Frontal Lobe Epilepsy Rolandic Epilepsy (RE) Insular Epilepsy (IE) Future Directions References Familia l Syndromes Familial Syndromes Introduction Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Neurological Manifestations Skin Manifestations Ophthalmological Manifestations Orthopedic Manifestations Tumors Management Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) Disease and Capillary Hemangioblastoma Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Tuberous Sclerosis and Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma (SEGA) Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Cowden Syndrome and Lhermitte-Duclos Disease Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Li-Fraumeni Syndrome Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Gorlin Syndrome/Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCCS) Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Lynch Syndrome Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Biallelic Mismatch Repair Deficiency (BMMRD) Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Turcot Syndrome Epidemiology Genetics Clinical Features and Diagnosis Management Genetic Counseling Conclusion References Fetal Hydrocephalus And Its Treatment In Utero Fetal Hydrocephalus and Its Treatment In Utero Introduction Epidemiology Diagnostic Experimental Studies and Natural History Etiology and Classification Twin Gestation Surgical Approaches Technical Notes Cephalocentesis Ventriculoamniotic Shunting Third Ventriculostomy Open Surgery for Intrauterine Repair for Myelomeningocele Illustrative Cases Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Conclusion References Genetic Basis And Classification of Cerebral Neoplasms Genetic Basis and Classification of Cerebral Neoplasms Introduction Embryonal Tumors Medulloblastoma CNS-PNET Embryonal Tumor with Multilayered Rosettes (ETMR) Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) Ependymoma Posterior Fossa Ependymoma Supratentorial Ependymoma Spinal Ependymoma Gliomas Low-Grade Gliomas High-Grade Gliomas Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma (DIPG) and Thalamic High-Grade Glioma Cortical High-Grade Glioma Choroid Plexus Tumors Intracranial Germ Cell Tumors Craniopharyngioma Common Familial Syndromes Associated with Pediatric Brain Tumors Mismatch Repair Syndrome Li-Fraumeni Syndrome Gorlin Syndrome Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Conclusions References Genetic Basis Of Neural Tube Defects Genetic Basis of Neural Tube Defects Introduction Classification of NTDs for Genetic Analysis Primary Neurulation Defects Secondary Neurulation Defects Postneurulation Defects of Skeletogenesis Isolated Versus Nonisolated NTDs The Role of Genes and Environment Chromosomal Disorders Involving NTDs Genetic Causes of Encephalocele Other Genes that May Cause NTDs as Single Gene Disorders Evidence for Genetic Causation in Nonsyndromic, Isolated NTDs Clues from Mouse Genetic Models of NTD The Search for Human NTD Genes Candidate Gene Approach Association Studies and GWAS Exome and Whole Genome Sequencing The Cause-and-Effect Problem Genes Associated with the Risk of NTDs Genes for Folate Metabolic Enzymes Folate Uptake and Transport Genes Cytoplasmic Enzymes of Folate Metabolism Mitochondrial Enzymes of Folate Metabolism Gene Interactions with Folate Nutritional Status Planar Cell Polarity (PCP) Pathway Genes Other NTD-Associated Genes Regulatory Mutations and NTDs Epigenetic Contributions to NTDs Conclusions References Germinoma Germinoma Introduction Clinical Presentation by Location Overview Pineal Region Suprasellar Region Bifocal Germinoma Ectopic Germinoma Diagnostics Imaging Tumor Markers Biopsy Patient Management Surgical Intervention Nonsurgical Management Radiation Alone Chemotherapy Only Combination Therapy Growing Teratoma Syndrome Metachronous Germinoma Salvage Therapy for Residual and Recurrence Outcomes and Monitoring Future Therapies Conclusion References Hemimegalencephaly Hemimegalencephaly Introduction Overview Definition and Classification Epidemiology Etiopathogenesis Previous Knowledge New Insights Clinical Picture Neurological Findings Epilepsy Psychomotor Retardation and Focal Deficits Physical Findings and Associated Syndromes Diagnosis Pathology Neuroimaging Current Radiodiagnostic Tools Prenatal Diagnosis Postnatal Findings Functional Studies Electroencephalography Diagnostic Tools EEG Findings Nonsurgical Management Peculiar Aspects of the Surgical Treatment Background Patient Selection Techniques Anatomical Hemispherectomy Functional Hemispherectomy and Hemispherotomies Main Surgical Complications in HME Outcome Seizures Motor Outcome and Psychomotor Development References How To Perform a V-P CSF Shunt? How to Perform a V-P CSF Shunt? Introduction General Considerations Skin Preparation Before the Operative Room Child Positioning Skin Preparation in the OR Tunneling Ventricular Catheter Insertion Ventricular catheter and shunt connection Intraperitoneal Insertion Conclusion References How To Perform a Ventriculo-Atrial CSF Shunt How to Perform a Ventriculo-Atrial CSF Shunt Introduction Indications Contraindications Operative Technique Anesthetic Considerations and Patient Positioning Shunt Placement Complications and Follow-Up Conclusions References How to Perform a Ventriculo-Gallbladder CSF Shunt How to Perform a Ventriculo-Gallbladder CSF Shunt Introduction Complications Technique Conclusion References How to Perform a Ventriculo-Subgaleal CSF Shunt How to Perform a Ventriculo-Subgaleal CSF Shunt History Indications Contraindications Operative Technique Anesthetic Considerations and Patient Positioning Shunt Preparation Shunting Procedure Postoperative Management Complications Conclusions References How to Perfome a Ventriculopleural Shunt How to Perform a Ventriculopleural Shunt Introduction Complications Surgical Techniques Via Trocar Puncture Via Thoracoscopic References Hydrocephalus Associated to Myelomeningocele Hydrocephalus Associated to Myelomeningocele Introduction Pathogenetic Mechanisms of the Hydrocephalus Associated to MMC Surgical Management of the Hydrocephalus Associated to MMC Extrathecal CSF Shunts Endoscopic Intrathecal CSF Shunt Endoscopic Ventricular Anatomy in Children with Hydrocephalus and Myelomeningocele Results of ETV in Children with Hydrocephalus and MMC Long-Term Evaluation of the Results of ETV in Children with Hydrocephalus and MMC Conclusion References Hydrocephalus Associated to Tumors Hydrocephalus Associated to Tumors Introduction Incidence Etiology and Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Investigations Management Conclusion References Hydrocephalus: Generalities and Clinical Presentations Hydrocephalus: Generalities and Clinical Presentations Introduction Definition Classifications and Pathogenetic Interpretations Obstructive Versus Communicating Hydrocephalus; Internal Versus External Hydrocephalus Acute Versus Chronic Hydrocephalus, Progressive Versus Arrested Hydrocephalus An Insight into CSF Dynamics CSF Pulses CSF Production CSF Absorption Fluid Exchanges Within the Brain Congenital vs. Acquired Hydrocephalus Epidemiology of Hydrocephalus Clinical Presentation Neonates Children Adolescents and Young Adults References ICP in Craniosynostosis ICP in Craniosynostosis Introduction Problems with ICP Monitoring in Children with Craniosynostoses Alterations of the ICP in Children with Craniosynostosis Preoperative and Postoperative ICP Monitoring in Craniosynostosis Patients Conclusions References In-Depth View: Functional Characteristics of CSF Shunt Devices (Pros and Cons) In-Depth View: Functional Characteristics of CSF Shunt Devices (Pros and Cons) Introduction Classification of Valves Technology and Requirements for Shunt Devices Goals for Shunts Safety Handling Reservoir Palpatoric Shunt Checks (``Pumping´´) Types of Shunt Devices Distal Slit Valves Proximal Slit Valves Diaphragm Valves Ball-in-Cone Valves Adjustable Valves (AV) Combined Adjustable and Hybrid Valves Sophysa Valves Medos Hakim (Medos Hakim Programmable = Codman Hakim Programmable, Numerous Synonyms) Medtronic Strata Miethke ProGAV ProGAV 2.0 Codman Certas Codman Certas Plus Siphon-Preventing Devices Diaphragm, Closed by the Weight of the Hanging Distal Water Column Gravitational (g-, Hydrostatic) Ball-in-Cone Valves and Devices Low-Flow Valves, Not Controlled by Body Position Codman SiphonGuard Vygon Phoenix Diamond 1 + 2 Scientific Trends Conclusion References In-Depth View: How to Perform a Lumboperitoneal CSF Shunt In-Depth View: How to Perform a Lumboperitoneal CSF Shunt Introduction History of the Lumboperitoneal Shunt Patient Selection Communicating Hydrocephalus Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Cranial Base or Spinal Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks Pseudomeningocele Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus Occlusion of Major Intracranial Venous Sinuses Growing Skull Fractures Contraindications to Lumbar-Peritoneal Shunting Description of the Shunt System The Valve Unit Lumbar Catheter Peritoneal Catheter Connectors Suture Clamp Preoperative Preparation Operative Technique Anesthetic Considerations and Patient Positioning Checking the Valve for Patency Introduction of the Lumbar Catheter Mini-laparotomy Tunneling Final Shunt Assembly Postoperative Management Complications of Surgery Key Points Conclusion References Infantile and Congenital Tumor Infantile and Congenital Tumor Introduction Histology Molecular and Genetic Characteristics Localization Symptoms Radiological Diagnosis Lab Workout Treatment Prognosis Conclusion Intracranial Congenital Arachnoid Cysts Intracranial Congenital Arachnoid Cysts Introduction Epidemiology: Definition, Incidence, and Distribution Embriology and Etiopathogenesis Pathology Natural History Main Clinical Characteristics Middle Cerebral Fossa ACs Sellar/Suprasellar ACs Interhemispheric ACs ACs of the Convexity ACs of the Quadrigeminal Plate Intraventricular ACs Posterior Fossa ACs Radiological Diagnosis Prenatal Diagnosis Postnatal Diagnosis Management: The Main Controversies Definition of Symptomatic Patients Managing Asymptomatic Patients The Choice of the Best Surgical Treatment Surgery Outcome and Conclusion References Intradural Extramedullary Spinal Tumors Intradural Extramedullary Spinal Tumors Introduction Classification Clinical Features Nerve Sheath Tumors C2-Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Clinical Features Anatomical Features of C2-Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Radiological Features Surgical Approach Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Meningiomas Determinants of Course of Surgery Foramen Magnum Meningiomas Classification Advantages of Posterior Midline Approach for Anterior or Anterolaterally Placed Foramen Magnum Meningiomas Myxopapillary Ependymoma Hemangioblastomas Dermoid/Epidermoid Tumors Endodermal Cysts Teratoma Spinal Paraganglioma Surgery for Intradural Extramedullary Tumors Laminoplasty Types Vascularized Pedicled Laminoplasty Laminoplasty Using Spinous Processes Posterior Interbody Fusion After Spinal Tumor Resection Conclusion References Intramedullary Tumors Intramedullary Tumors Introduction Epidemiology Presentation Diagnostic Evaluation Pathology Surgical Treatment Alternative and Adjuvant Therapies: Radiation Therapy and Chemotherapy Outcomes Conclusion References Intraoperative Neurophysiology During Intracranial Surgery in Children Intraoperative Neurophysiology During Intracranial Surgery in Children Introduction Development of Motor Pathways in Children and Its Impact on IONM Supratentorial Surgery Somatosensory Evoked Potential (SEPs) and Phase Reversal Technique Direct Cortical Stimulation, Subcortical Stimulation, and Motor Evoked Potential (MEP) Monitoring Penfield´s Technique Versus Short Train of Stimuli Bipolar Versus Monopolar Stimulation Subcortical Mapping Mapping of Language Infratentorial Surgery Monitoring in the Posterior Fossa Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs) Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SEPs) Motor Evoked Potentials Corticobulbar Motor Evoked Potentials Free-Running Electromyography Mapping in the Posterior Fossa Mapping of Peripheral Cranial Nerves Mapping of the Corticospinal Tract at the Cerebral Peduncle Direct Mapping of the Brainstem: Midbrain and Floor of the Fourth Ventricle Conclusions References Intraoperative Neurophysiology Durin Spine and Spinal Cord Surgery in Children Intraoperative Neurophysiology During Spine and Spinal Cord Surgery in Children Introduction Monitoring Modalities and Techniques Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEP) Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) Muscle MEPs Spinal MEPs (D-Wave) Spinal Cord Mapping (Sensory and Motor) Monitoring and Mapping the Lumbosacral Nervous System Free-Running Electromyography (EMG) Bulbocavernosus Reflex Anal MEP Monitoring Mapping of the Cauda Equina IONM-Assisted Neurosurgical Procedures Chiari Malformation Complex Craniocervical Junction (CVJ) Anomalies Spinal Cord Tumors Spinal Dysraphism Conclusion References Intraspinal Cysts Including Syringomyelia Unrelated to Chiari I Malformation Intraspinal Cysts Including Syringomyelia Unrelated to Chiari I Malformation Introduction Classification of Spinal Cysts Spinal Arachnoid Cysts Extradural Arachnoid Cysts Treatment of Extradural Arachnoid Cysts. Intradural Arachnoid Cysts Dural Ectasia Lateral Meningoceles Anterior Meningoceles and the Currarino Syndrome Perineural Cysts Neurenteric Cysts Inclusion Cysts Tumor-Associated Cysts of the Spinal Cord Non-Chiari Syringomyelia Hydromyelia Chiari II Malformation and Syrinx Syringomyelia and Occult Spinal Dysraphism Conclusions References Lambdoid Synostoses Lambdoid Synostoses Introduction Clinical Features History Head Shape Examination Instruments for the Assessment of Deformity Assessment of Severity Clinical Assessment in the Case of Bilateral Synostosis of the Lambdoid Suture Radiological Evaluation Imaging Modalities Radiography Ultrasound Imaging Computed Tomography Scan (CT) MRI Surgical Management Surgical Procedure Bilateral Synostosis Unilateral Synostosis Springs Distractors Long-Term Follow Up Maxillofacial Deformity References Late Complications Of Shunts Late Complications of Shunts Introduction Complication Related to the Nature of the Shunt as a Foreign Body Inflammatory Reaction to the Presence of the Shunt Calcification Late Infections Mechanical Malfunctions Obstruction Shunt Rupture/Detachment Dislocation Complications Related to the Function of the Shunt Receiving Site-Related Complications Abdominal Pseudocysts, CSF Ascites, and CSF Hydrothorax (VP Shunt) Cardiopulmonary Complications and Shunt Nephritis (VA Shunt) Cranial Complications of Chronic CSF Drainage Conclusion References Limited Dorsal Spinal Nondisjunctional Disorders: Limited Dorsal Myeloschisis, Congenital Spinal Dermal Sinus Tract, and Mixed Lesions Limited Dorsal Spinal Nondisjunctional Disorders: Limited Dorsal Myeloschisis, Congenital Spinal Dermal Sinus Tract, and Mixed... Introduction Embryogenetic Mechanisms Normal Primary Neurulation Pathoembryogenesis of Limited Dorsal Spinal Nondisjunctional Disorders Morbid Anatomy and Clinical Manifestations of Limited Dorsal Spinal Nondisjunctonal Disorders Pure CSDST Morbid Anatomy Clinical Manifestations Pure LDM Morbid Anatomy Clinical Manifestations Mixed CSDST and LDM LDSND with Spinal Cord Lipomas, Split Cord Malformations, and Other Dysraphic Malformations Evaluation Clinical Assessment and Laboratory Studies Neuroimaging Management Surgery Surgical Technique for CSDST Surgical Technique for Flat LDM Surgical Technique for Saccular LDMs Surgical Techniques for LDSNDs Associated with Other Anomalies. Outcomes and Conclusion References Management Of Craniosynostosis Evaluation Of Results Management of Craniosynostosis: Evaluation of Results Introduction Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Follow-up Criteria Morphometric Assessment Conclusion References Medical Intractable Epilepsy: Preoperative Evaluation Medical Intractable Epilepsy: Preoperative Evaluation Introduction Medically Intractable or Drug-Resistant Epilepsy Definition Epidemiology and Risk Factors Consequences of DRE Presurgical Evaluation History and Physical Examination Electroencephalography (EEG) Neuroimaging Studies Neuropsychological Testing Conclusion References Medical Treatment Of Hydrocephalus Medical Treatment of Hydrocephalus Introduction History Drugs Used in the Medical Treatment of Hydrocephalus Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors Loop Diuretics Osmotic Agents Fibrinolytic Therapy TGF-Beta Regulating Agents Aquaporins References Medulloblastomas Medulloblastomas Introduction Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Association with Cancer Predisposition Syndromes Gorlin Syndrome Turcot Syndrome Li-Fraumeni Syndrome Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome Imaging General Imaging Characteristics Imaging Correlates with Molecular Subgroups Classification and Molecular Subgrouping Histopathology Molecular Subgroups Diagnostic Work-Up, Staging, and Risk Classification Clinical Prognostic Factors and Risk Stratification Based on Clinical Features Risk Stratification of Non-infant Medulloblastoma: Integrating Clinical and Molecular Criteria Treatment Surgery Management of Hydrocephalus Tumor Resection Extent of Resection Intraoperative Imaging Postoperative Care Postoperative Morbidity and Complications Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Treatment of Young Children with Medulloblastoma Targeted Therapies and Future Directions Recurrent Medulloblastoma Long-Term Effects and Quality of Life Conclusion References Meningitis Neurosurgical Implications Meningitis: Neurosurgical Implications Introduction: Epidemiology and Global Burden of Meningitis in Children Pathophysiology of Meningitis Sequelae of Meningitis: General and Surgical Neonatal Meningitis Hydrocephalus Loculated Hydrocephalus Intracranial Collections Tuberculous Meningitis Conclusion Metopic Suture Synostoses Metopic Suture Synostoses Introduction Epidemiology Etiological Factors Clinical Symptoms Diagnostic Approaches Clinical Course Management of Trigonocephaly Open Surgery Reoperation Conclusion Movement Disorders Movement Disorders Introduction Dystonia Classification Inherited Dystonia Status Dystonicus Treatment Motor Scales Medical Treatment Surgical Treatment Conclusion Tremor Conclusion Tourette´s Syndrome Diagnosis Treatment Medical Treatment Surgical Treatment Patient Selection Surgical Studies Conclusion References Moya-moya Disease Moya-moya Disease Introduction Epidemiology Etiology and Pathophysiology Pathological Findings Primary Lesion Collateral Circulation Natural Disease Course and Prognosis Clinical Symptoms Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Nonsurgical Approaches Surgical Approaches Considerations Before, During, and After Surgery Anesthesia Surgical Procedures Surgery Outcomes Surgical Complications Conclusion References Multiloculated Hydrocephalus Multiloculated Hydrocephalus Introduction Incidence Diagnosis Natural History and Pathogenesis Treatment Prognosis and Outcomes Conclusions References Neurocutaneous Disorders Neurocutaneous Disorders Introduction: What Are Neurocutaneous Disorders? Earliest Descriptions and the Pioneers Behind the Eponyms Earliest Reports and Portraits Earliest Clinical Descriptions (Before the Acknowledgments of the Eponyms) Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: the Era of the Atlases, Treatises, and Encyclopedias Nineteenth Century: The Pioneers Before the Persons Behind the Syndromes Nineteenth Century: The Persons Behind the Eponyms Von Recklinghausen´s Disease [Neurofibromatosis Type 1] Wishart and Gardner´s Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Bourneville´s Tuberous Sclerosis Von Hippel-Lindau Disease Klippel-Trenaunay Syndrome Sturge-Weber Syndrome Bloch-Sulzberger (Incontinentia Pigmenti) Syndrome Hypomelanosis of Ito Wyburn-Mason Syndrome [Bonnet-Dechaume-Blanc Syndrome] Louis-Bar (Ataxia-Telangiectasia) Syndrome The Origin of the Name: Phakomatoses, Congenital Ectodermoses, Neuro-Ectodermal Dysplasias, and Neurocutaneous Syndromes The Origin of the Name: (1) Phakomatoses The Origin of the Name: (2) Congenital Ectodermoses (Neurocutaneous Syndromes) The Origin of the Name: (3) Congenital Neuro-Ectodermal Dysplasias Toward a Modern Classification of Neurocutaneous Syndromes Conclusion References Neurofibromatosis 2 Neurofibromatosis 2 Introduction History Definition Epidemiology Genetics and Molecular Biology Natural History Laboratory Studies Clinical Features Cutaneous Findings Bilateral Vestibular Schwannomas Unilateral Vestibular Schwannomas Ocular Findings Spinal Tumors Meningioma Nonvestibular Schwannomas Meningioangiomatosis Other Findings Variants of Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Mosaic (Segmental) NF-2 Schwannomatosis Phenotypical Overlaps Between Mosaic NF-2 and SWNTS Treatment Surgery Vestibular Schwannoma Intramedullary Tumors Neurofibromas of the Spinal Roots Neurofibromas of the Large Plexus and Peripheral Nerve Plexiform Neurofibromas Meningiomas Brainstem Tumors Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Targeted Therapy Conclusion References Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Neurofibromatosis Type 1 General Features History Epidemiology Genetics and Molecular Biology Diagnostic Criteria Laboratory Studies Natural History and Prognosis Signs and Symptoms Café au Lait Spots Freckling Lisch Nodules Buphthalmos Orbital Osseous Dysplasia Skull Lesions Osseous Lesions Vertebral Abnormalities Vascular Abnormalities Macrocephaly Unidentified Bright Objects/Nonenhancing Foci Nonneoplastic Abnormalities Commonly Seen in the Central Nervous System/Heterotopias/Hamartomas Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Neurofibromas Large Peripheral Nerve and Plexus Neurofibromas Pachydermatoceles Intraspinal Neurofibromas CNS Tumors Non-CNS Tumors Variants of Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Mosaic Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Associated NF-1 Features Spinal Neurofibromatosis Associated NF-1 Features NF-1 Optic Pathway Gliomas Introduction Histology Topography and Imaging. ``Anterior´´ Gliomas ``Posterior´´ Gliomas ``Total´´ Gliomas Symmetric Chiasmal Gliomas Clinical Presentations Visual Functions Endocrinological Data Growth Central Precocious Puberty (CPP) Hypopituitarism and Diabetes Insipidus Diencephalic Syndrome Obesity Natural History Treatment Surgery Surgical Technique Complications of Surgery Ommaya Reservoir Chemotherapy Targeted Therapy The Radiation Therapy Treatment Results Visual Functions Endocrine Functions Survival Conclusion References Neuroimaging In Pediatric Hydrocephalus Neuroimaging in Pediatric Hydrocephalus Introduction Development and Anatomy of the CSF Spaces Morphogenesis of the CSF Spaces The Ventricles The Choroid Plexuses The Ependyma The Extracerebral Spaces The Cerebral Vessels The Imaging Tools MR Imaging of the Mature Hydrocephalic Brain MR Imaging of the Immature Brain CT Scanning Ultrasonography Radiologic Anatomy of the CSF Spaces Skull, Spine, and Dura The Ventricles The Extracerebral CSF Spaces The Vessels and Choroid Plexuses Radiologic Diagnosis of Hydrocephalus Diagnosis of Hydrocephalus The Ventricular System in Hydrocephalus The Cisterns in Hydrocephalus Classification of Hydrocephalus Imaging the Parenchymal Changes Imaging the Acute Parenchymal Changes Chronic Parenchymal Changes CSF Hydrodynamics and the Pathogenetic Models of Hydrocephalus The Bulk Flows: CSF Production and Absorption Sites Choroid Plexus Secretion of CSF Parenchymal Production of CSF Transdural Absorption of CSF Parenchymal Absorption of CSF The Pulsating Flows: Pulsating Flow Wave and Cerebral/Thecal Viscoelastic Response The Oscillatory CSF Movements The Cerebral/Thecal Compliance Near-Wall CSF Flows: The Ependymal Motile Cilia Pathogenetic Models of Hydrocephalus Simple Obstructive Hydrocephalus: Decreased Compliance Mostly High Pressure Hydrocephalus: Production-Absorption Mismatch Added to the Decreased Compliance Nonobstructive (Absorptive) Hydrocephalus: A Production-Absorption Mismatch Hydrocephalus in Specific Etiopathogenic Contexts Obstructive Hydrocephalus Chronic Ventricular Obstructive Hydrocephalus (Compensated) Cisternal Obstructive Hydrocephalus Obstructive Hydrocephalus with High ICP (Obstructive and Absorptive) Secretion-Absorption Mismatch: Nonobstructive (Absorptive) Hydrocephalus Chronic Nonobstructive (Absorptive) Hydrocephalus Acute Nonobstructive (Absorptive) Hydrocephalus Fetal Hydrocephalus Imaging of Treated Hydrocephalus and Resulting Complications Therapeutic Goals and Options Assessment of Results and Complications Resolution of Hydrocephalus Assessment of the ETV Patency Assessment of Shunt Malfunctions Shunt Infections CSF Over-Drainage Subacute Intracranial Hypotension Subdural Collections CSF Over-Drainage: Chronic Tonsillar Descent (Chiari 1 Deformity) Chronic Intracranial Hypotension Craniocerebral Disproportion and Intracranial Hypertension The Slit Ventricle Syndrome Conclusion References Neurologic Development And Objective Neurological Examination of the Infant and Child Neurologic Development and Objective Neurological Examination of the Infant and the Child Introduction Key Factors of Anatomofunctional Development of the Brain Axonal Guidance, Excitatory and Inhibitory Proteins and CNS Plasticity Guidance Proteins, Development and Function of Synapses The Synaptic Spine Expanding Reelin Function in Dendritogenesis and Synaptogenesis CNS Plasticity and Activity-Dependent Myelination Objective Neurological Examination of the Infant and the Child The Neonatal Period The Neurological Examination The Development of Functions and Neurologic Examination in Infants and Children Development of Motility Language, Speech Development and Pathology Other Speech Disorders Mental Retardation Extraneurologic Signs and Symptoms Neurologic Signs and Symptoms Behaviour and Social Motor System, Tonus and Abnormal Movements Tonus and Particular Postures Tremors Chorea Athetosis Dystonia Myoclonus Ataxia Plegic Disorders Walking Anomalies Cranial Nerves Muscle and Peripheral Nerve Objective Neurological Examination of Muscles Objective Neurological Examination of the Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves References Neuromodulation Neuromodulation Introduction Techniques Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Transcranial Current Stimulation Deep Brain Stimulation Vagus Nerve Stimulation Potential Applications of Pediatric Neuromodulation Dystonia Epilepsy Tourette Syndrome ADHD Depression Autism Schizophrenia Hemiparesis Conclusion References Neuropsychological Evaluation Of Single Suture Craniosynostosis (SSC) Neuropsychological Evaluation of Single Suture Craniosynostosis (SSC) Introduction Early Outcome Neurovisual Functions Language and Learning Abilities Executive Function Neurobehavioral Consequences Late Outcome Correlation Between Suture and Specific Neurodevelopment Clinical Data and Personal Experience Discussion Intrinsic Factors Extrinsic Factors Neurodevelopmental Factors Limitations and Future Directions References Neurosurgical Aspects Of Nonaccidental Injury in Children Neurosurgical Aspects of Nonaccidental Injury in Children Terminology and History Epidemiology Etiology Mechanism of NAHI History and Examination Imaging and Special Tests Management Issues How to Solve the Problem Conclusion References Nonsyndromic Plurisutural Synostoses (Oxycephaly, Mercedes Benz Pattern Synostosis) Nonsyndromic Plurisutural Synostoses (Oxycephaly, Mercedes Benz Pattern Synostosis) Introduction Oxycephaly Surgical Indication of Oxycephaly Surgery Case Presentation Outcome of Oxycephaly Mercedes Benz Pattern Synostosis Morphology and Etiology of Mercedes Benz Pattern Craniosynostosis Surgical Indication of Mercedes Benz Pattern Craniosynostosis Surgery of Mercedes Benz Pattern Craniosynostosis Case Presentation Outcome of Mercedes Benz Pattern Craniosynostosis Conclusion References Open Neural Tube Defects Open Neural Tube Defects Classification Epidemiology Pathogenesis/Embryology Etiology Gender Folate Antiepileptic Drugs (AEDs) Diabetes Mellitus Obesity Prenatal Diagnosis Maternal Serum Alpha-Fetoprotein Ultrasonography Amniocentesis MRI Prenatal Counseling Perinatal Management Repair of Defect Surgical Technique (Sutton et al. 2012; Gaskill 2004) Postoperative Care Associated Conditions Hydrocephalus Chiari II Malformation Surgical Technique Orthopedic Abnormalities Urologic Abnormalities Latex Allergy References Optic Pathway Gliomas Optic Pathway Gliomas Introduction Epidemiology Pathology Molecular Biology Imaging Clinical Presentation and Evaluation Neurofibromatosis Treatment Observation Surgery Surgical Technique Chemotherapy Radiation Outcome Visual Outcome Prognostic Factors Conclusion References Osteogenic Distraction Osteogenic Distraction Introduction Benefits in General Posterior Cranial Vault Distraction Indications and Benefits Technique with Tips and Tricks Complications and How to Avoid Them Complications Related to the Skin Complications Related to the Devices Other Complications Limitations and Disadvantages of PCVD Anterior Cranial Vault Distraction Indications Technique Limitations and Specific Complications Summary Other Cranial Distractions Distraction Devices Future Perspectives Conclusions References Palliative Surgical Techniques (VNS, Callosotomy) Palliative Surgical Techniques (VNS, Callosotomy) Introduction Corpus Callosotomy Brief History Patient Selection Indications Anatomic Considerations Surgical Technique Completion Callosotomy Postoperative Care Outcomes Avoidance and Management of Complications Acute Complications Disconnection Syndrome Language Impairment and Transient Aphasia Conclusion Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) Brief History Patient Selection Anatomic Considerations Neurocybernetic Prosthesis Operative Procedure Operative Technique Generator Revision Lead Revision Avoidance and Management of Complications Infection Vocal Cord Abnormalities Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities Dyspnea/Obstructive Sleep Apnea Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Patients with Vagus Nerve Stimulation Implants Conclusion References Pediatric (Nontuberculous) Spinal Infections Pediatric (Nontuberculous) Spinal Infections Introduction Etiopathogenesis Spinal Epidural Abscess (SEA) Spondylodiscitis Intradural Spinal Infection Subdural Extramedullary Spinal Infection Intramedullary Spinal Infection Clinical Features Spinal Epidural Abscess Spondylodiscitis Intradural spinal infection Subdural extramedullary spinal infection. Intramedullary Spinal Infection Investigations Hematological and Microbiological Tests Radiology Miscellaneous Tests Management and Outcome Spinal Epidural Abscess Spondylodiscitis Subdural Infection Intramedullary Infection Spinal Dysraphism and Concomitant Infection Conclusion References Pediatric Arterivenous Malformations Pediatric Arterivenous Malformations Introduction Natural History Pathology and Embryology Prevalence Presentation AVF AVM Risk of Hemorrhage in Incidental/Asymptomatic AVM Lifetime Risk of Rupture Risk Factors for Hemorrhage Re-Hemorrhage Outcome in Children with AVM Hemorrhage Staging Diagnostic Studies Treatment Surgery Preoperative Evaluation Anesthesia Surgical Management General Principles of AVM Surgery by Location Postoperative Care Complications of Surgery Embolization Elective/Nonurgent Treatment Risk of Embolization Monotherapy Embolizates and Microcatheters Techniques Transarterial Transvenous Complications of Embolization Technical Tips and Nuances for Neuroangiography and Embolization in Children Complications of SRS Treatment Conclusion Clinical Vignettes Pial AVF Complete Embolization after AVM Rupture Emergent AVM Embolization: High Risk Features Complication: AVM Hemorrhage Post Embolization Thalamic AVM: Surgical Resection AVM Feeding Artery Aneurysm Clipping References Pediatric Chemotherapy Pediatric Chemotherapy Introduction Chemotherapic Management Side Effects Noncytotoxic Therapies Conclusions In summary References Pediatric Disc Disease Pediatric Disc Disease Introduction Herniated Lumbar Disc Apophyseal Fractures Infections of the Disc Space Juvenile Intervertebral Disc Calcification Conclusion References Pediatric Intracranial Aneurysms Pediatric Intracranial Aneurysms Introduction Epidemiology Incidence Age Distribution Sexual Distribution Location Anterior Circulation Posterior Circulation Aneurysm Size and Giant Aneurysm Multiple Aneurysms Comorbidity Classification Saccular/Berry Aneurysms Dissecting/Fusiform Aneurysms Traumatic Aneurysms Iatrogenic Aneurysms Infectious/Mycotic Aneurysms Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Related Aneurysms Symptoms Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH) Rehemorrhage Vasospasm and Delayed Cerebral Ischemia (DCI) Mass Effect Other Symptoms Treatment Surgical Treatment Endovascular Treatment Outcome Constellations Etiology Aneurysms in Infants Aneurysms in Newborn False/Pseudo Aneurysms Spontaneous Thrombosis Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysms (UIA) De Novo Aneurysms and Recurrent Aneurysms Follow-Up References Pediatric Meningioma Pediatric Meningioma Introduction Epidemiology Etiology and Risk Factors Genetic Associations Neurofibromatosis Other Associations Radiation-Associated Meningiomas Pathology Presentation Neuroimaging Treatment Surgery Radiotherapy Medical Therapy Long-Term Management Outcome Conclusions References Pediatric Radiotherapy: Background and Current Paradigms Pediatric Radiotherapy: Background and Current Paradigms Introduction Brief Overview of Radiation Therapy Recent Advances Image Guidance Radiation Therapy (IGRT) Proton Beam Therapy Medulloblastoma: The Paradigm of Dose and Volume Reduction Ependymoma Intracranial Germ Cell Tumors Supratentorial PNET Intramedullary Spinal Cord Tumors Low-Grade Glioma Conclusion References Pediatric Radiotherapy: Surgical Considerations, Sequelae, and Future Directions Pediatric Radiotherapy: Surgical Considerations, Sequelae, and Future Directions Introduction Operating After Radiation to the Surgical Site Long-Term Effects of Radiation Late Toxicity Vasculopathy Radiation Necrosis Treatment-Related Malignancies Neurocognitive Future Directions Conclusions References Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Outcomes and Rehabilitation Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Outcomes and Rehabilitation Introduction Pediatric TBI Outcomes Clinical Outcomes Neuropsychological Outcomes Cognitive Outcomes Behavioral Outcomes Psychiatric Outcomes Academic Outcomes Familial Outcomes Factors Influencing Outcomes Injury Characteristics and Other Clinical Factors Patient Factors Outcome Assessment Clinical Tools Neuropsychological Tools Concussion and Return-to-Play Assessment Tools Challenges to Outcome Assessment Rehabilitation Cognitive Rehabilitation Approaches to Cognitive Rehabilitation Evidence-Based Research and Recommendations for Cognitive Rehabilitation School-Based Interventions Family-Based and Parent-Training Interventions Rehabilitation Following Concussions Challenges Associated with Rehabilitation Methodological Limitations in Assessing the Efficacy of Rehabilitation Other Challenges Associated with Cognitive Rehabilitation Summary and Conclusion References Pediatric Tuberculosis And Parasitic and Fungal Infections Pediatric Tuberculosis and Parasitic and Fungal Infections Introduction Tuberculosis Epidemiology Pathophysiology and Diagnosis Tuberculous Meningitis Diagnosis Management Intracranial Tuberculomas Diagnosis Management Tuberculous Abscess Spinal Tuberculosis (Pott´s Disease) Diagnosis Management Tuberculous Osteitis Parasitic Infections Neurocysticercosis Diagnosis Management Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis Management Echinococcus Diagnosis Management Fungal Infections Cryptococcus Coccidioidomycosis Aspergillosis Candidiasis Conclusions References Physiological Responses Of The Newborn, Infant, and Child to Neurosurgical Trauma Physiological Responses of the Newborn, Infant, and Child to Neurosurgical Trauma Introduction Children Are a Challenge General Considerations Brain Physiology and Monitoring Cerebral Compliance Cerebral Blood Flow Intracranial Pressure Blood Pressure and Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Autoregulation Carbon Dioxide Reactivity Cerebral Ischemia Brain Oxygenation Monitoring Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) Monitoring Brain Metabolism Hemoglobin Glucose Developmental Outcomes In Surgery Conclusion References Pineal Region Tumors Pineal Region Tumors Introduction Clinical Presentation Imaging Pineal Origin Tumors Germ Cell Tumors Other Lesions Mimicking Conditions Management of Hydrocephalus CSF Analysis and Need for Tissue Surgical Management Adjuvant Therapy Outcome Conclusion References Pituitary Adenomas Pituitary Adenomas Introduction Presentation and Diagnosis Imaging General Considerations of Treatment Surgical Treatment Surgical Considerations in the Pediatric Population Postoperative Treatment Tumor Subtypes Prolactinomas Presentation Lab Findings Medical Management Decisions Surgical Decisions GH-Secreting Adenomas Presentation Laboratory Findings Medical Management Decisions Surgical Decisions Radiosurgery ACTH-Secreting Adenomas (Cushing´s) Nonfunctioning Pituitary Adenomas Conclusion References Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus Introduction Understanding Terms and Concepts Facts of ``Born Too Soon´´ Babies Preterm Birth Overview Germinal Matrix and Intraventricular Hemorrhage Brain Atrophy, Ventriculomegaly, and Hydrocephalus How Intraventricular Hemorrhage Occurs? Clinical Scenarios Debut of Intraventricular Hemorrhage How Does PHH Manifest? Diagnostic Workup Antenatal Identification Recognition After Birth Some Conditions Look Like IVH Using the Data for Action: Management Options Medical Handling Wait-and-See Policy with Invasive Measures Definitive Surgical Solutions ETV: A Promising Innovative Surgical Tool CSF Valves: First-Line Treatment Hazards from CSF Derivations Outcome for IVH and PHH Actions to Improve the Outcome Conclusions References Postinfective Hydrocephalus Postinfective Hydrocephalus Introduction Classification of Hydrocephalus Communicating Hydrocephalus Noncommunicating Hydrocephalus Postinfective Hydrocephalus Causes of Postinfective Hydrocephalus Tubercular Meningitis and Hydrocephalus Pathogenesis of Hydrocephalus in TBM Grading of Tubercular Meningitis Imaging in Tubercular Meningitis Predictors of Hydrocephalus in TBM Management of Tubercular Meningitis with Hydrocephalus Medical Management Efficacy of Medical Management Surgical Management CSF Diversion Procedures External Ventricular Drain Ventricular Shunt Lumboperitoneal Shunt Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy Management of Patients with Poor-Grade TBM with Hydrocephalus Management of Patients with TBM with Hydrocephalus with HIV Infection Pyogenic Meningitis and Hydrocephalus Causative Agents of Pyogenic Meningitis in Children Pathogenesis of Hydrocephalus in Pyogenic Meningitis Clinical Presentation of Pyogenic Meningitis-Associated Hydrocephalus Management of Pyogenic Meningitis-Associated Hydrocephalus How to Reduce Shunt Infection Rates? Postsurgical Meningitis and Hydrocephalus Chronic Meningitis and Hydrocephalus Neurocysticercosis and Hydrocephalus Pathogenesis of Hydrocephalus in Neurocysticercosis Clinical Presentation of Neurocysticercosis Diagnosis of Neurocysticercosis Management of Neurocysticercosis-Associated Hydrocephalus Medical Management Surgical Management Antenatal Infections Causing Hydrocephalus Toxoplasma Cytomegalovirus Conclusion References Principles Of Neuroimaging Principles of Neuroimaging Introduction Ultrasonography MR Imaging of the Brain The Main Clinical Imaging Sequences Other Imaging Sequences Imaging the Immature Brain MR Imaging of the Spine CT Imaging Imaging Protocols Conclusion References Sagittal Synostoses Sagittal Synostoses Introduction Definition Diagnosis The Heterogeneous Spectrum of Scaphocephaly Different Morphologies, Different Pattern of Fusion Different Intracranial Findings Different Etiologies Different Ages Deformation Raised Intracranial Pressure Visual Function Neurocognitive Development The Management Surgical Techniques and Principles Operative Complications Heterogeneous Post-op Results and Outcome Follow-up Conclusion References Scalp Agenesis Scalp Agenesis Introduction: Incidence and Etiology Clinical Features Diagnosis Management Conclusions References Scoliosis And Other Congenital Vertebral Anomalies Scoliosis and Other Congenital Vertebral Anomalies Introduction Classification and Natural History Patient Evaluation Spinal Imaging Treatment Options Conclusion References Secondary Craniosynostoses Secondary Craniosynostoses Introduction Craniosynostosis Caused by Metabolic Disturbances Rickets Thyroid-Related Diseases Lysosomal Storage Disease Osteopetrosis Shunt-Related Craniosynostosis Conclusions References Secondary Neurulation Defects-1T: Thickened Filum Terminale, Retained Medullary Cord Secondary Neurulation Defects-1: Thickened Filum Terminale, Retained Medullary Cord Introduction Secondary Neurulation Thickened Filum Terminale Neuroimaging Surgical Indications Occult Tethered Cord Syndrome Surgery and Outcome Retained Medullary Cord Embryology Neuroimaging Surgical Findings Histopathology Conclusion References Secondary Neurulation Defects-2: Terminal Myelocystocoele: Surgical Observations, Laboratory Findings, and Theory of Embryogenesis Secondary Neurulation Defects-2: Terminal Myelocystocoele: Surgical Observations, Laboratory Findings, and Theory of Embryogen... Clinical Observations Patient Material Clinical Presentation Group 1 Group 2 Neuroimaging Intraoperative Electrophysiology Surgical Findings Histopathology Clinical Outcome Summary of Neuroimaging, Surgical, Electrophysiological, and Histological Findings The Need for the ``Essential TMC´´ in Postulating Its Embryogenesis Essential and Nonessential Festures of TMC Laboratory Observations on Avian Secondary Neurulation Secondary Neurulation Early Secondary Neurulation in Chick Model Late Secondary Neurulation in Chick Model Resemblance of Late-Stage Secondary Neural Tube and Essential Features of TMC: Theory of Embryogenesis Other Nonessential Features of TMC Timing of Apoptosis Failure and Relationship between TMC and Retained Medullary Cord Species Differences? Other Theories of Embryogenesis Clinical Matters Conclusion References Skull Base Tumors Skull Base Tumors Introduction Presentation Imaging Tumors by Age Tumors of the Cranial Base Teratoma Rhabdomyosarcoma Esthesioneuroblastoma Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma Schwannoma Chordoma and Chondrosarcoma Ewing´s Sarcoma Neuroblastoma Neurosurgical Skull Base Approaches Open Skull Base Surgery Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery Conclusion References Skull Tumors And Scalp Lesions Skull Tumors and Scalp Lesions Introduction Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Tests Surgical Treatment Lesions of the Scalp Scalp Nodules Vascular Scalp Lesions Scalp Defects Lesions of the Skull Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis Aneurysmal Bone Cysts Osteoma, Osteoblastoma, and Osteoid Osteoma Fibrous Dysplasia Calcified Cephalohematoma Malignant Skull Tumors Conclusion References Spasticity Spasticity Introduction Etiology and Pathophysiology Epidemiology Diagnosis and Assessment Management of Spasticity Pharmacologic Management Non-pharmacologic Medical Management Orthopedic Surgical Management Neurosurgical Management Neurosurgical Outcomes Conclusion References Special Considerations For Surgical Fusion of the Occiput and Cervical Spine Special Considerations for Surgical Fusion of the Occiput and Cervical Spine General Introduction Anatomy and Indications Anatomy Surgical Indications Occipitocervical Fusion Normal Anatomy Congenital Vertebral Anomalies Post-Chiari Decompression General Concepts in Surgical Planning Craniocervical Fusions in the Very Young Patient Atlantoaxial Fusion Surgical Planning Patient Positioning C1-2 Transarticular Screw Constructs Goel-Harms Construct Bone Grafts Complication Avoidance Postoperative Management Long-Term Alignment and Cervical Spine Growth After Fusion Conclusion References Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Shunts in the Pediatric Population Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Shunts in the Pediatric Population Introduction Natural History and Symptoms Types of Lesions and Classification Paraspinal Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Shunts (SCAVS) in the Pediatric Population Intradural SCAVS in the Pediatric Population Genetics Purely Genetics-Related Diseases SCAVS and Metameric Lesions Induced by Genetic Modifications The Experience at Hôpital Foch (2002-2016) Lesions Symptoms Architecture of SCAVS Symptoms of SCAVS Treatment and Results References Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality (SCIWORA) in Children Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality (SCIWORA) in Children Introduction Biomechanics of the Pediatric Spine Age and Maturation Clinicopathological Predictions Clinical Features of SCIWORA Causes and Mechanisms of SCIWORA Neurological Lesions Age as a Factor in SCIWORA Age Versus Incidence of SCIWORA Age Versus Severity of SCIWORA Age Versus Level of Neurological Injury Thoracolumbar SCIWORA Radiographically Occult Instability in SCIWORA Delayed Neurological Deterioration Recurrent SCIWORA MRI Findings in SCIWORA Extraneural MRI Abnormalities Neural MRI Abnormalities Diagnosis and Management Initial Evaluation and Treatment Definitive Radiographic Evaluation Electrophysiological Studies Management of SCI SCIWORA in the Comatose Child Controversies Regarding MRI and Immobilization Outcome Prognostic Value of MRI in SCIWORA Conclusion References Spine And Spinal Cord Injuries In Children: General Aspects Including Pure Ligamentous Injuries in Children Spine and Spinal Cord Injuries in Children: General Aspects Including Pure Ligamentous Injuries in Children Introduction Prehospital Assessment and Immobilization Epidemiology and Socioeconomic Impact Imaging Nonsurgical Injury Management Neonatal Spinal Cord Injury Odontoid Epiphysiolysis Atlantoaxial Rotatory Subluxation or Fixation Treatment with Cervical Spine Immobilization Surgical Management of Spine Trauma and Spinal Cord Injury Thoracolumbar Spine Trauma Compression Fractures Burst Fractures Flexion-Distraction Injuries Combined Fracture-Dislocations Apophyseal Fractures and Herniation Spinous Process/Transverse Process Fractures Pure Ligamentous Injury in Children Conclusions References Spring-Assisted Distraction: Principles and Techniques Spring-Assisted Distraction: Principles and Techniques The Concept Overview Spring Biomechanics Clinical Use Correction of Scaphocephaly Technique Results Advances Calvarial Vault Expansion Results Other Indications Conclusion References Sturge-Weber Syndrome Sturge-Weber Syndrome Introduction Historical Background Pathophysiology Hallmarks Neurological Symptoms Diagnosis Neuroimaging in SWS:(SW 2012) Positron Emission Tomography/Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography Electroencephalogram Management References Surgical Management Of Complex Spinal Cord Lipomas: How, Why, and When to Operate Surgical Management of Complex Spinal Cord Lipomas: How, Why, and When to Operate Introduction Anatomy and Classification Dorsal Lipoma Transitional Lipoma Terminal Lipoma Chaotic Lipoma Surgically Relevant Embryology Embryogenesis of Dorsal and Transitional Lipomas Embryogenesis of Chaotic Lipomas Embryogenesis of Terminal Lipoma Intraoperative Electrophysiological Monitoring Surgical Technique of Total/Near-Total Lipoma Resection Step 1. Exposure and Dealing with the Extraspinal Lipoma Stalk Step 2. Detachment of Lipoma from Dura: Unhinging the Hammock Step 3. Lipoma Resection Step 4. Pia-to-Pia Neurulation of the Neural Placode Step 5. Expansile Graft Duraplasty Thoughts and Afterthoughts Complications of Total Lipoma Resection Results of Total Resection Early Postoperative Results Long-Term Outcome Predictor Variables Influencing Outcome Cord-Sac Ratio and the Importance of Neurulation Preoperative Profiling for Good and Poor Risk Patients Total Resection Versus No Surgery for Asymptomatic Lipomas Is Partial Resection Worse than No Resection? The Dubious Rank of Chaotic Lipomas Conclusion References Surgical Technique Of Endoscopic Choroid Plexus Coagulation Surgical Technique of Endoscopic Choroid Plexus Coagulation Introduction Anesthesia and Positioning Burr Hole Placement Endoscope Insertion and Choroid Plexus Coagulation Closure Conclusion References Surgical Treatment Of Hydrocephalus Based on CSF Shunt Devices Surgical Treatment of Hydrocephalus Based on CSF Shunt Devices Introduction Historical Perspective: Concept, Devices, and Surgical Techniques To Drain Outside To Bypass Obstruction To Shunt the CSF into Extrathecal Compartments Current Indications Conclusion References Syndromic Craniosynostosis Syndromic Craniosynostosis Introduction and Pathogenesis of Craniosynostosis Multiple Suture Craniosynostosis Brachycephaly Oxycephaly Crouzon Syndrome Apert Syndrome Pfeiffer Syndrome Cloverleaf Skull (Kleeblattschädel) Intracranial Pressure in Complex Craniosynostoses Chiari Malformation in Craniosynostosis Management of Chiari Malformation in Craniosynostosis Hydrocephalus and Alteration of CSF Dynamics Clinical Implications of Abnormal Venous Circulation Management of Hydrocephlaus in Complex Craniosynostosis Upper Airway Obstruction Treatment Posterior Vault Distraction Prognosis Conclusion References Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery Introduction Indications for Surgery Evaluation Temporal Lobe Seizure Semiology Electroencephalography (EEG) Imaging Goals of Surgery and Alternative Procedures Operative Detail, Preparation, and Technical Nuances Positioning Lateral Temporal Lobe Resection Medial Resection of the Hippocampus and Amygdala Extent of Resection Intraoperative and Extraoperative Electrocorticography Complications Outcomes Conclusion References Thalamic Gliomas Thalamic Gliomas Introduction Anatomy of the Thalamus Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Histopathology Radiology Treatment Prognostic Factors Conclusions References Traumatic Atlanto-Occipital Dislocation in Children Traumatic Atlanto-Occipital Dislocation in Children Introduction Epidemiology Anatomy, Biomechanics, and Morbid Anatomy Anatomy Biomechanics Morbid Anatomy and Pathophysiology of AOD Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Pang´s Condyle-C1 Interval (CCI) MRI in the Diagnosis of AOD Diagnostic Paradigm for AOD Management References Tuberculosis Of The Spine Tuberculosis of the Spine Introduction Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation The Systemic Disease The Bony Lesion The Neurological Manifestation The Delayed Deformity Investigations Management Principles Chemotherapy Surgery Details of Management by Region Craniovertebral Caries Subaxial Cervical Spine The Dorsal Spine Lumbar Spine Meningeal and Intramedullary Disease Conclusions References Tuberous Sclerosis Tuberous Sclerosis Introduction Pathophysiology Diagnostic Genetic and Clinical Criteria Skin and Oral Lesions Cardiac Lesions Renal Lesions Pulmonary Lesions Ophthalmologic Manifestations Liver Involvement Central Nervous System Lesions Radial Hypomyelinated Tracts Subependymal Nodules (SEN) Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytomas (SEGAs) Epidemiology Histopathological Features Neuroimaging Clinical Presentation Natural History Treatment Options Cortical Tubers Histopathological Characteristics Neuroimaging Epileptogenesis Neurological Manifestations Epileptic Syndrome Electroencephalographic Findings Neuropsychiatric Disorders TSC-Related Medical Treatment Epilepsy Surgery: Selection of Patients Surgical Procedures Resective Surgery Palliative Surgical Approaches Corpus Callosotomy Vagal Nerve Stimulation (VNS) References Unilateral Coronal Craniosynostosis Unilateral Coronal Craniosynostosis Introduction Definition Epidemiology Clinical Diagnosis Main Physical Characteristics Differential Diagnosis UCC Versus Deformational Plagiocephaly UCC Versus Other Causes of Facial Asymmetry UCC Versus Isolated Frontosphenoidal Craniosynostosis Visual Problems Neurocognitive Aspects Genetic Aspects Associated Syndromes Radiological Findings Prenatal Diagnosis Postnatal Diagnosis Skull Base Involvement Knowledge from the Radiological Research Surgical Management Indications and Timing Preoperative Work-Up Surgical Correction Other Techniques Postoperative Follow-Up Outcome Surgical Outcome Functional Outcome References Vein Of Galen Aneurysmal Malformations Vein of Galen Aneurysmal Malformations Introduction Definition Epidemiology History Anatomy Normal Anatomy of the Vein of Galen Angioarchitectonics of VGAMs Arterial Supply of VGAMs Venous Drainage of the Aneurysm Sac The Normal Development of the CNS Vasculature Origin of the VGAMs Other Pathological Conditions That Involve the Vein of Galen Classification of VGAMs Clinical Presentation of the VGAMs Pathogenesis of the Heart Failure Manifestation in Different Age Groups Diagnostics Prenatal Diagnostics Ultrasound Fetal MRI Postnatal Diagnostics Transfontanelle Ultrasound Postnatal MRI Postnatal CT Angiography Treatment Microsurgery Endovascular Surgery Arterial Approach Technique of the Transarterial Approach in VGAMs Transvenous Approach Technique of the Transvenous Approach in VGAMs Strategy Complications of Endovascular Embolization Results Shunting Procedures Radiosurgery Medical Treatment Untreated VGAMs (Natural History) Spontaneous Thrombosis Conclusion References Vertebral Tumours Vertebral Tumours Introduction Clinical Presentation Pain Weakness Mass Spinal Deformity Sphincter Disturbance Systemic Signs Investigations Spinal MRI Spinal CT Plain X-Rays Additional Investigations Tumour types principles of management Pathological Diagnosis Neurological Status Spinal Integrity Establishing a differential diagnosis Age Anatomical Site of Origin Malignant Vertebral Tumours in Children Neuroblastoma (NB) Ewing´s Sarcoma (EWS)/Peripheral PNET Osteogenic Sarcoma (OS) Chordoma Lymphoma Benign Vertebral Tumours in Children Aneurysmal Bone Cyst (ABC) Osteoid Osteoma/Osteoblastoma Osteochondroma Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (LCH) Hemangioma Giant Cell Tumour of Bone Treatment Considerations Surgical Planning En Bloc Resection Vertebrectomy Sagittal Resection Posterior Arch Resection Intralesional Resection Complications and Their Prevention Neurological Vascular Deformity Conclusions References Von Hippel-Lindau Disease Von Hippel-Lindau Disease Introduction Historical Background Generalities Clinical Diagnosis Screening Recommended for Patients at Risk of Harboring VHL Genetic Diagnosis Pathogenesis: Molecular Genetics Classification Genotype-Phenotype Correlation (Lonser et al. 2003a) CNS Lesions CNS Hemangioblastomas Cerebellar Hemangioblastomas Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Spinal Cord Hemangioblastomas Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Retinal Hemangioblastomas Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Endolymphatic Sac Tumors Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Visceral Lesions Pheochromocytomas Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Renal Cyst and Renal Cell Carcinoma Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Pancreatic Cysts and Neuroendocrine Tumors Clinical and Imaging Features Treatment Papillary Cystadenomas References What Is Epilepsy? What Is Epilepsy? Introduction Defining Epilepsy Overview of the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy Etiology of the Epilepsies Terminology and Classification of Seizures and the Epilepsies The Genetics of Epilepsy Seizures in the Neonatal Period Self-Limited Familial Neonatal Epilepsy Ohtahara Syndrome Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy (EME) Seizures in Infancy Dravet Syndrome Genetic Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus Myoclonic Epilepsy in Infancy West Syndrome Seizures in Childhood Benign Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (BECTS) Childhood Absence Epilepsy Epilepsy with Myoclonic-Atonic Seizures Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome Early-Onset Childhood Occipital Epilepsy Late-Onset Childhood Occipital Epilepsy Seizures in Adolescence and Early Adulthood Juvenile Absence Epilepsy Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy Management of Epilepsy Conclusion References X-Linked Hydrocephalus X-Linked Hydrocephalus Introduction Epidemiology Clinical and Radiological Findings Non-CNS-Associated Anomalies Adducted Thumbs Hirschsprung Disease Molecular Biology of XLH Biology of L1CAM L1 Gene Mutation Analysis Genotype and Phenotype Correlation Mechanism of Hydrocephalus Diagnosis and Treatment Diagnosis (Prenatal and Postnatal) Treatment Illustrative Cases Family HC27 Family HC45 Family HC53 Conclusion References
