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دانلود کتاب Textbook of Medical Biochemistry
دانلود کتاب کتاب درسی بیوشیمی پزشکی
مشخصات کتاب
Textbook of Medical Biochemistry
ویرایش: Third
نویسندگان: Dinesh Puri
سری:
ISBN (شابک) : 9788131223123
ناشر: Elsevier India
سال نشر: 2010
تعداد صفحات: 735
زبان: English
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 9 مگابایت
قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 41,000
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فهرست مطالب
Cover Front matter Copyright Dedication Foreword Preface to the third edition Preface to the first edition Acknowledgements CONTENTS Chapter 1-Water, Buffers And Acid-Base Chemistry Water as Principal Biological Fluid Ionic Properties of Water Dissociability Polarity Electric Dipolar Nature of Water Hydrogen Bonds Properties of Water Higher Melting and Boiling Points Solvent Properties Ionization Behaviour of Water Equilibrium Constant Ion Product of Water pH Scale or Measure of H+ Concentration pH measurement: Indicator dyes: Note: Indicator papers (pH papers): pH meter: Acids, Bases and Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Acids Bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Titration Curve of Weak Acids Buffers Mechanism of Action of a Buffer System Major Body Buffers Bicarbonate Buffer Phosphate Buffer Proteins Acid-Base Balance: Applied Aspects Overview The Three-tier Defense Mechanisms for Control of Bicarbonate Note: Carbonate Dehydratase System Role of Kidneys in Bicarbonate Homeostasis Bicarbonate Reclamation New Bicarbonate Generation Urinary Buffers Role of Erythrocytes Note: The Acid-Base Disorders Acidosis Metabolic Acidosis Causes: Compensation of metabolic acidosis: Plasma findings in metabolic acidosis: Anion gap: Respiratory Acidosis Compensation of respiratory acidosis: Renal response: Plasma findings in respiratory acidosis: Alkalosis Metabolic Alkalosis Causes: Compensation of metabolic alkalosis: Respiratory Alkalosis Causes: Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 2-Chemistry of Carbohydrates Biological Significance of Carbohydrates Classification of Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides Structural Properties Isomerism Asymmetric Carbon Atom Stereoisomerism Optical Activity D and L Forms Ring Structures of Monosaccharides Pyranose and Furanose Ring Structures Anomers Mutarotation Diastereomers and Epimers Fischer and Howarth projections Hexoses, Pentoses, and Related Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides Hexoses and Pentoses Disaccharides Invert sugar Oligosaccharides Glycoprotein Functions Derived Sugars Acid Sugars Deoxy Sugars Amino Sugars Phosphoric Acid Esters Sugar Alcohols Glycosides Polysaccharides Note Homopolysaccharides Starch Starch hydrolysis Starch digestion in humans Glycogen Roles of liver and muscle glycogen are different Celluloses Cellulose cannot be digested Chitin Heteropolysaccharides Glycosaminoglycans Structure Proteoglycan-monomers and proteoglycan aggregates Relationship Between Structure and Function Gel-forming component of extracellular matrix (ECM): Structural support to connective tissue Others Classification Hyaluronic acid Chondroitin 4- and 6-sulphates (CS) Keratan sulphate (KS) Dermatan sulphate (DS) Heparin Heparan sulphate (HS) Mucopolysaccharidoses Biochemical defect Features of mucopolysaccharidoses Clinical types Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 3-Chemistry of Lipids Fatty Acids General Characteristics Functions Nomenclature Properties Solubility Melting Point Soap Formation Hydrogenation Halogenation Oxidation Essential Fatty Acids Biomedical Importance Deficiency of EFAs Branched Chain Fatty Acids Classification of Lipids Simple Lipids Triacylglycerols Structure Properties Functions Waxes Compound Lipids Phospholipids Phosphoglycerides Plasmalogens Cardiolipins Functions of phosphoglycerides Sphingomyelins Glycolipids Cerebrosides Sulphatides Globosides Gangliosides Functions of Glycolipids Derived Lipids Steroids Other Lipid Derivatives Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 4-Amino Acids, Peptides And Proteins Amino Acids Composition Stereochemistry Classification Based on Polarity and Charge on R Groups Non-polar R Groups Uncharged Polar R Groups Charged Polar R Groups Based on Structure of Side Chain Based on Catabolic Fate of the Amino Acid Based on Bodys Ability to Synthesize the Amino Acid Specific Roles of Some Side Chains Non-standard Amino Acids Acid-Base Properties of Amino Acids Amphoteric Nature Note Each Amino Acid can Exist in Three Charged States: Positive, Neutral, Negative Titration Curve of a Monoamino-monocarboxylic Acid (Alanine) Titration Curve of Basic Amino Acids Titration Curve of Acidic Amino Acids Separation of Amino Acids Chromatography Electrophoresis Ion-exchange chromatography Peptides Structure Reactions of Peptides Acid-Base Behaviour Hydrolytic Cleavage Proteolytic Cleavage Labelling by FDNB Functions Characteristics of Peptide Bonds Partial Double Bond Character Trans-planar Uncharged Hydrogen Bonding and Angles Proteins Size Functions Classification Based on Shape Fibrous Proteins Globular Proteins Based on Structural Components Simple Proteins Conjugated Proteins Note Protein Structure Primary Structure Secondary Structure a-Helix Characteristics Forces stabilizing the a-helix Amino acids not compatible with the a-helix b-Pleated Sheet Characteristics Stabilizing forces Tertiary Structure Folding of Proteins and Chaperones Domains Forces Stabilizing the Tertiary Structure Quaternary Structure Protein Denaturation Changes in Physical Properties Agents Causing Denaturation Precipitation Reactions of Proteins Separation and Purification of Proteins Separation on the Basis of Protein Solubility Separation on the Basis of Molecular Size Dialysis Gel Filtration (Column Chromatography) Ultracentrifuge Note Separation on the Basis of Molecular Charge Ion-exchange Chromatography High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Electrophoresis Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) SDS-PAGE Isoelectric focusing Separation on the Basis of Affinity Binding Affinity Chromatography Precipitation by Antibodies Separation on the Basis of Hydrophobicity Determination of Amino Acid Sequence of Peptides and Proteins* *This topic relates to higher level learning and it is mean ... Step 1: The size of the protein Step 2: Amino acid composition of the protein Step 3: Determination of N and C terminal amino acids Step 4: Sequence analysis Step 5: Reconstructing the proteins sequence Sequencing by Molecular Biology Techniques Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Determination of Higher Order Structure of Proteins+ +This topic relates to higher level learning and it is meant only for ... X-Ray Crystallography Ultraviolet Light Spectroscopy Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Computer Based Modelling Chemical Synthesis of Proteins Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 5-Proteins With Biological Activity Collagen Overview Basic Structure Triple Helix Types of Collagens Amino Acid Composition and Sequence Biosynthesis of Collagen Polypeptide Synthesis Post-translational Modifications Hydroxylation Glycosylation Procollagen Triple Helix Formation Procollagen to Tropocollagen Formation by Removal of Extension Peptides Collagen Fibril Formation Cross-linking and Fibre Formation Degradation of Collagen Genetic Defects of Collagen Biosynthesis and Metabolism EhlersŠDanlos Syndrome Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI) Epidermolysis Bullosa Dermatosparaxis Disorders of Collagen Degradation Effect of Aging and Disease on Collagen Metabolism Elastin Structure Cross-linking Glycoproteins Overview Functions of Glycoproteins Structure of Glycoproteins The Carbohydrate Component Link between Carbohydrate and Protein Synthesis of Glycoproteins Synthesis of O-linked Glycosides Synthesis of N-linked Glycosides Degradation of Glycoproteins Plasma Proteins Separation of Serum Proteins Albumin/Globulin (A/G) Ratio Albumin Functions Oncotic Pressure Transport Circulating Hormone Reservoirs Buffers Nutritive Function Diseases and Disorders Hyperalbuminaemia Hypoalbuminaemia Renal causes Gastrointestinal causes Hepatic causes Other causes Analbuminaemia Prealbumin (Transthyretin) Globulins Important Globulins and their Functions a1-Antitrypsin Orosomucoid a2-Macroglobulin Ceruloplasmin Haptoglobin Haemopexin Transferrin Diseases and Disorders Hyperglobulinaemia Advanced liver diseases Multiple myeloma Diagnosis Chronic infections A/G Ratio and Electrophoretic Pattern in Some Diseases Fibrinogen Diseases and Disorders Immunoglobulins Structure Variability Proteolytic Cleavage of Immunoglobulin Primary and Secondary Antibody Responses Functions Functions Based on Antigen Recognition and Binding Functions Based on Effector Response Classes of Immunoglobulins and their Effector Functions IgG IgM IgA IgE IgD Isotypes, Allotypes and Idiotypes Diseases Involving Antibodies Hypogammaglobulinaemia Hypergammaglobulinaemia Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 6-Enzymes Properties of Enzymes Chemical Nature Cofactors Metalloenzymes Catalytic Efficiency Enzyme Specificity: The Active Site Location within the Cell Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis Free Energy Changes During Chemical Reactions Note Changes in Enzyme Active Site Transition State Stabilization Acid-base Catalysis Covalent Catalysis Proximity Effect Nomenclature Classification Quantitative Assay of Enzymes Catalytic Activity Measurement of Activity Unit of enzyme activity Specific activity Turnover number of enzyme Enzyme Kinetics Effect of Substrate Concentration Note Effect of Temperature Effect of pH Effect of Enzyme Concentration MichaelisŒMenten Kinetic Theory of Enzyme Action Order of reaction Note LineweaverŒBurk plot Bisubstrate reactions Inhibition of Enzyme Activity Reversible Inhibition Competitive Inhibition Non-competitive Inhibition Uncompetitive Inhibition Note Irreversible Inhibition Therapeutic Applications of Enzyme Inhibitors Competitive Inhibition of Folate Biosynthesis Competitive Inhibition of Dihydrofolate Reductase Competitive Substrate of Vitamin K, Dicoumarol Competitive Substrate in Treatment of Methanol Poisoning Regulation of Enzyme Activity Allosteric Modulation Properties of allosteric enzymes Deviation from MichaelisŒMenten kinetics Homotropic and heterotropic effects Kand V-class enzymes Covalent Modification Reversible Covalent Regulation Phosphorylation-dephosphorylation Calcium Binding Adenylation Irreversible Activation by Proteolytic Cleavage Induction-repression of Enzyme Synthesis Isoenzymes Mechanisms for the Production of Isoenzymes Separation of Isoenzymes Isoenzymes Useful in Diagnosis Enzymes in Clinical Diagnosis Overview Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Enzymes Transaminases Aspartate Transaminase (AST) Alanine Transaminase (ALT) Phosphatases Alkaline Phosphatases (ALP) Isoenzymes of alkaline phosphatase Acid Phosphatase Dehydrogenases Lactate Dehydrogenase Note b-Hydroxybutyrate Dehydrogenase Transferases -Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT) Creatine Kinase (CK) Amylase and Lipase Plasma Cholinesterase (Pseudocholinesterase) Note Enzymes as Therapeutic Agents Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 7-Characteristics of Cells and Membrane Transport Cell Structure Composition: Chemical Viewpoint Inorganic Constituents Organic Constituents Subcellular Organelles of Eukaryotic Cell Separation of Subcellular Organelles Why do Eukaryotic Cells Subcellular Organelles? Cytoskeleton Cytoplasm Biological Membranes Chemical Composition of Membranes The Lipid Bilayer Membrane Components Membrane Lipids Phospholipids Sphingolipids Cholesferol Membrane Proteins Peripheral and Integral Proteins Note Other Membrane Components Membrane Asymmetry Membrane Fluidity Specialized Membrane Structures Fibronectin (fibro = fibre, nectin = connect) Tight junctions Desmosomes Red Blood Cell (Erythrocyte) Membrane Glycophorin Anion exchanger Ankyrin Micelles and Liposomes Micelles Liposomes Biomedical importance of liposomes Transport Across Cell Membrane Passive Diffusion Carrier-mediated Transport Facilitated Diffusion Glucose Transporters Chloride Transporters Others Active Transport Primary Active Transport Na+ŒK+ dependent ATPase Ca2+Šdependent ATPase Proton pump in the stomach Secondary Active Transport Models for Action of Transporters Mobile carrier system Shuttle system Transmembrane pore system Exocytosis and Endocytosis Exocytosis Endocytosis Transport Through Gap Junctions Structure Functions Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 8-Overview of Metabolism and Cell Bioenergetics Overview of Metabolism General Considerations Metabolic Reactions are Interdependent and Interconnected Regulation of Metabolism Study of Metabolic Pathways Isotopic Tracers Metabolic Blocks Cell-free Extracts Steps of Cell-free Extracts Preparation from the Isolated Cells Bioenergetics: Principles Laws of Thermodynamics The First Law The Second Law Free Energy, Entropy and Enthalpy Standard Free Energy Change Standard Free Energy Changes of Sequential Reactions Note Role of ATP in Cell Bioenergetics Composition Functions Standard free energy (DG0 ) Low-Energy, High-Energy and Super High-Energy Compounds Phosphoenol pyruvate Creatine phosphate Cleavage of ATP to AMP and Pyrophosphate Other Energy Rich Nucleoside Triphosphates Exercises Write short notes on Chapter 9-Metabolism of Carbohydrates I: Mainline Metabolic Pathways Transport of Glucose Into Cells Note Glycolysis Reactions Stage I: The Investment Phase Reaction 1: Phosphorylation of Glucose Reaction 2: Isomerization of Glucose 6-Phosphate Reaction 3: Phosphorylation of Fructose 6-Phosphate Note Reaction 4: Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate Reaction 5: Isomerization of Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Stage II: Energy Pay-off Phase Reaction 6: Dehydrogenation of Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Reaction 7: ATP Production from 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Reaction 8: Inter-Molecular Shift of Phosphate Group Note Reaction 9: Dehydration of 2-Phosphoglycerate Reaction 10: ATP Production from Phosphoenol Pyruvate Fate of Pyruvate Anaerobic Glycolysis Significance Generation of ATP by Glycolysis Aerobic State Anaerobic State Cori Cycle or Lactic Acid Cycle Regulation Regulation of Hexokinase/Glucokinase Regulation of Phosphofructokinase Covalent Modulation of PFK2 Insulin Regulation of Pyruvate Kinase Allosteric regulation Covalent modulation Diseases Associated with Glycolysis Feeder Pathways Feeder Pathways for Monosaccharides Metabolism of Fructose The Pathway Disorders of Fructose Metabolism Essential fructosuria Hereditary fructose intolerance Excess Fructose is Hazardous for Body Metabolism of Galactose The Pathway Galactosaemia Classical galactosaemia Galactokinase deficiency Metabolism of Mannose Feeder Pathways for Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Metabolism of Amino Sugars Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex: A Bridge Between Glycolysis and TCA Cycle Enzymes Coenzymes TCA Cycle as a Cyclic Pathway Reactions of TCA Cycle Reaction 1: Synthesis of Citrate from Acetyl CoA and Oxaloacetate Reaction 2: Isomerization of Citrate Reaction 3: Oxidative Decarboxylation of Isocitrate Reaction 4: Oxidative Decarboxylation of a-Ketoglutarate Reaction 5: Cleavage of Succinyl CoA Note Reaction 6: Oxidation of Succinate Reaction 7: Hydration of Fumarate Note Reaction 8: Oxidation of Malate Energy Yield from TCA Cycle Pasteur Effect Crabtree Effect Synthetic Functions of the TCA Cycle Synthesis of Glucose Synthesis of Fatty Acids Synthesis of Amino Acids Others Regulation of TCA Cycle Regulation of the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Allosteric regulation Covalent modulation Regulation of the Cyclic Pathway (Fig. 9.21 ) Regulation of Citrate Synthesis Regulation of Oxidative Decarboxylation of Isocitrate Regulation of Oxidative Decarboxylation of a-ketoglutarate Glyoxylate Cycle Reactions Gluconeogenesis Gluconeogenesis: Not a Reversal of Glycolysis The Bypass Reactions of Gluconeogenesis First Bypass: Conversion of Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Second Bypass: Dephosphorylation of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Third Bypass: Hydrolysis of Glucose 6-phosphate Reversible Steps of Gluconeogenesis Gluconeogenesis is an Expensive Process Substrates for Gluconeogenesis Lactate Amino Acids Glycerol Propionate Regulation Regulation of Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate Conversion Regulation of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to Fructose 6-phosphate Conversion Hormonal Regulation Regulation by Glucagon Regulation by Insulin Reciprocal Regulation of Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis GN Ratio or DN Ratio Glycogen Metabolism Glycogen Synthesis (Glycogenesis) Synthesis of UDP-glucose Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3 Synthesis of Primer to Initiate Glycogen Synthesis Elongation of Chains by Glycogen Synthase Formation of Branches in Glycogen Glycogen Degradation (Glycogenolysis) Action of Glycogen Phosphorylase Removal of Branches Fate of Glucosyl Units Released from Glycogen Regulation Regulation of Activity of Glycogen Phosphorylase Covalent Modulation Allosteric Regulation Regulation by Calcium Ions Regulation of Activity of Glycogen Synthase Covalent Modulation Allosteric Regulation Hormonal Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism Role of Glucagon and Epinephrine Note Role of Insulin Glycogen Storage Diseases Hepatic Forms von Gierkes disease (Type I) Coris disease (Type III) Andersons disease (Type IV) Hers disease (Type VI) Type VIII Myopathic Forms Pompes disease Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 10-Metabolism of Carbohydrates II: Secondary Pathways and Regulation of Blood Glucose Level Pentose Phosphate Pathway Specialized Products Generated by Pentose Phosphate Pathway Reactions of Pentose Phosphate Pathway Stage I: Oxidative Phase Dehydrogenation of glucose 6-phosphate Hydrolysis of 6-phosphopgluconolactone Formation of ribulose 5-phosphate Stage II: Non-oxidative Interconversion Phase Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3 Regulation Functions Reductive biosynthesis Antioxidant role Phagocytosis (literally ficell eatingfl) Metabolism of xenobiotics Special function in erythrocytes HMP-shunt can be Modified Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Uronic Acid Pathway Reactions of the Pathway UDP-Glucuronate is Metabolically Active Compound Alternate Route for Oxidation of L-Gulonate Essential Pentosuria Effect of Drugs Metabolism of Other Sugars Sorbitol Pathway Sorbitol Pathway in Diabetes Mellitus Sorbitol Intolerance Regulation of Blood Glucose Level Role of Liver High permeability of hepatocytes to glucose Rapid utilization of the internalized glucose Role of Endocrines Role of Glucagon Role of Glucocorticoids Role of Catecholamines Role of Growth Hormone Role of Insulin Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 11-Lipid Metabolism I: Metabolism Of Fatty Acids And Compound Lipids b-Oxidation Activation of Fatty Acid Types of Thiokinase Enzymes Transport of Activated Fatty Acid into Mitochondria Standard b-Oxidation Process of Activated Fatty Acid Reactions of b-Oxidation Repeating Sequence of Reactions Energy Production from b-Oxidation Regulation of b-oxidation Supply of Fatty Acids Mitochondrial Uptake of Fatty Acids Note Defects of b-oxidation Deficiency of Enzymes of b-Oxidation Deficiency of Translocase Carnitine Deficiency Jamaican Vomiting Sickness Other Oxidative Pathways a-Oxidation of Fatty Acids Refsums Disease Fatty Acid Oxidation in Peroxisomes Zellweger syndrome Omega ()-Oxidation of Fatty Acids Oxidation of Odd Chain Fatty Acids Inborn Errors of Propionate Metabolism Propionic Acidaemia Methylmalonic Aciduria Note Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) Ketone Body Production and Metabolism Ketone Body Synthesis Note Ketone Body Oxidation Excessive Production of Ketone Bodies Starvation Oxaloacetate depletion Exhanced gluconeogenesis Diabetes Mellitus Other Causes of Ketosis Dangers of Ketosis Regulation of Ketogenesis De Novo Synthesis of Fatty Acids Transport of Two Carbon Units to Cytosol Conversion of Acetyl CoA to Malonyl CoA Reactions Catalyzed by Fatty Acid Synthase Priming Reactions Elongation Steps Further cycles Cycle summary Comparison of Fatty Acid Synthesis and Oxidation Sources of NADPH Regulation of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Availability of Citrate in Cytoplasm Regulation of Enzyme Activities Acetyl CoA carboxylase Fatty acid synthase Chain Elongation and Desaturase Systems The Chain Elongation System The Desaturase System Metabolism of Triacylglycerol Synthesis of Triacylglycerols General Pathway Intestinal Pathway Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols (Lipolysis) Adipose Tissue Metabolism TAG Synthesis TAG Hydrolysis (Lipolysis) The Dynamic Steady State Hormonal Regulation of Adipose Tissue Metabolism Role of Insulin Effect of Nutritional States on Adipose Tissue Metabolism Metabolism of Complex Lipids Metabolism of Phospholipids Glycerophospholipid Metabolism Biosynthesis of Glycerophospholipids Synthesis of Lecithin and Cephalin Synthesis of Phosphatidylserine Synthesis of Cardiolipins or Phosphatidylinositol Others De novo and salvage pathways Degradation of Glycerophospholipids Sphingolipid Metabolism Biosynthesis of Sphingolipids Synthesis of sphingosine and ceramide Formation of three classes of sphingolipids Degradation of Sphingolipids Sphingolipidoses General Features Major Types of Storage Diseases Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 12-Ipid Metabolism Ii: Lipoprotein Lipid Metabolism Ii: Lipoprotenins, Cholesterol And Prostaglandins Lipoproteins Overview Nomenclature Functions Constituents Lipids Proteins Functions of Apolipoproteins Separation of Lipoproteins Electrophoresis Ultracentrifugation Lipoprotein Metabolism Chylomicrons Synthesis Metabolism Fate of Chylomicron Remnant Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) Synthesis and Secretion Metabolism of VLDL Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) LDL Receptors Regulation of LDL Receptors Fate of the Internalized LDL LDL Receptors on Macrophages are not Down-Regulated LDL is bad cholesterol High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Metabolism Functions Lipoprotein Receptors Lipoprotein(a) Disorders of Plasma Lipoproteins (Dyslipoproteinaemia) Hyperlipoproteinaemia Type I (Hyperchylomicronaemia) Type IIa (Familial-hypercholesterolaemia) Type IIb (Hypercholesterolaemia) Type III (Dysbetalipoproteinaemia) Type IV (Familial endogenous hypertriglyceridaemia) Type V Other Causes Treatment of Hyperlipoproteinaemias Hypolipoproteinaemias Abetalipoproteinaemia Hypobetalipoproteinaemia Hypoalphalipoproteinaemia Fatty Liver Syndrome Overview Synthesis Exportation Causes of Fatty Liver Excessive Synthesis of Triacylglycerols Impaired Exportation of Triacylglycerols as VLDL Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Impaired Formation of the Lipid Moiety Role of Chemicals and Other Agents Metabolism of Cholesterol Overview Biosynthesis of Cholesterol Stage I: Formation of 6-C Compound, Mevalonate Stage II: Formation of Energized 5-C Units: Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate and Dimethylallyl Pyrophosphate Stage III: Squalene Formation by Condensation of Six Isoprene Units Stage IV: Formation of 27-C Cholesterol from Squalene Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis Feedback Inhibition Hormonal Regulation Sterol-mediated Regulation of Transcription Inhibition by Drugs Cholesterol Homeostasis in General Metabolism of Bile Acids and Salts Synthesis Regulation of Biosythesis Secondary bile acids Functions of bile acids Enterohepatic circulation Specialized Products Derived from Cholesterol Atherosclerosis Role of Hyperlipidaemia in Atherosclerotic Diseases Atherogenic Profile Age Related Changes in Atherogenic Profile Pathological Variations The Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk Pathogenesis and Consequences of Atherosclerosis Management of Hyperlipidaemia: Biochemical Basis Dietary Management Drug Therapy Antioxidants V.Prostaglandins Overview Historical Perspective Chemical Nature Metabolism Synthesis Note Catabolism Anti-inflammatory Drugs Inhibit Prostaglandin Synthesis Aspirin Irreversibly Inhibits Cyclooxyganase Activity Biological Action and Uses Mechanism of action of prostaglandins Thromboxanes, Prostacyclins and Leukotrienes Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 13-Amino acid and protein metabolism Nitrogen Metabolism Protein Turnover Amino Acid Pool Note Nitrogen Balance Catabolism of Amino Group Nitrogen Transamination Oxidative Deamination Transport of Ammonia Ammonia Toxicity Other Sources of Ammonia Urea Cycle Reactions of Urea Cycle Reaction 1: Formation of Carbamoyl Phosphate Reaction 2: Formation of Citrulline Reaction 3: Condensation of Citrulline with Aspartate Reaction 4: Cleavage of Argininosuccinate Reaction 5: Formation of Urea Urea cycle is linked to TCA cycle Energetics of Ureagenesis Control of Urea Cycle Coarse Regulation Fine Regulation Defects of Urea Cycle Familial Hyperammonaemia Acquired Hyperammonaemia Catabolism of Carbon Skeleton of Amino Acids Amino Acids that Form Pyruvate (Fig. 13.10) Amino Acids That Form TCA Cycle Intermediates (Fig. 13.9) Oxaloacetate producing a-Ketoglutarate producing Fumarate producing Succinyl CoA producing Amino Acids that Form Acetyl CoA or Acetoacetyl CoA (Fig. 13.17) Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism Disorders of Aromatic Amino Acid Metabolism Phenylketonuria (PKU) Variant forms Biochemical Abnormalities Diagnostic tests Clinical presentation Carrier state Treatment Alkaptonuria Tyrosinaemia Disorders of Branched Chain Amino Acids Maple Syrup Urine Disease Isovaleric Acidaemia Methyl Malonic Aciduria Inborn Errors of Histidine Metabolism Histidinaemia Inborn Errors of Sulphur-Containing Amino Acids Homocystinurias Homocysteine as risk factor for CAD Cystinuria Cystinosis Hereditary Sulphite Oxidase Deficiency Other Inborn Errors Hartnup Disease Blue Diaper Syndrome and Familial Renal Iminoglycinuria Hyperprolinaemias Non-ketotic Hyperglycinaemia Primary Hyperoxaluria Biosynthesis of Amino Acids Nitrogen Fixation Biosynthesis of Non-essential Amino Acids Synthesis of Proline and Arginine Synthesis of Serine, Glycine and Cysteine Synthesis of Tyrosine Biosynthesis of Semi-essential Amino Acids Amino Acids as Precursors of Specialized Products Histamine Biosynthesis Gamma () Aminobutyric Acid Biosynthesis Functions GABA and Huntingtons disease Note Catecholamines Biosynthesis Regulation of biosynthesis Functions Parkinsons disease Serotonin and Melatonin Biosynthesis Functions Melanin Biosynthesis Functions Albinism Thyroid Hormones Creatine Phosphate and Creatinine Biosynthesis Functions Clinical implications Carnitine Nicotinamide Polyamines Biosynthesis Functions Biogenic Amines Glutathione Acetylcholine Others Special products of glycine Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 14-Electron Transport, Oxidative Phosphorylation and Mitochondrial Membrane Transporters Electron Transport Chain (ETC) Sources of Electrons for ETC Coenzymes linked with dehydrogenases Localization of ETC Biochemical Anatomy of Mitochondrion Electron Transport: An Overview Redox Couples and Redox Potential Free Energy Changes During Electron Flow Components of Electron Transport Chain Nicotinamide Nucleotides Flavoproteins Iron-sulphur Centres Ubiquinone Cytochromes Pathway of Mitochondrial Electron Transport Complex I Complex III Complex IV Complex II Inhibitors of ETC Rotenone Barbiturates Antibiotics Cyanide, carbon monoxide azide, and hydrogen sulphide Oxidative Phosphorylation Hypotheses for ATP Generation Chemical Coupling Hypothesis Conformational Coupling Hypothesis Chemiosmotic Hypothesis Step I Step II ATP Production and P : O Ratio Sites of ATP Production Energetics Uncouplers Physiological uncouplers and ionophores Significance of Uncoupling Mitochondrial Membrane Transporters Adenine Nucleotide Translocase (ANT) Phosphate Translocase System Monocarboxylate Carrier Dicarboxylate Carrier Tricarboxylate Carrier Shuttle Systems Enzymes Participating in Biological Oxidation Dehydrogenases Oxidases Hydroperoxidases Mitochondrial Myopathies Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 15-Integration Of Metabolism Hormonal Regulation of Major Metabolic Pathways Insulin Glucagon Epinephrine Testosterone Glucocorticoids Metabolic Interconnections and Organ Specialization Metabolic Adaptations in Three FastingŒstarvation States Body stores of energy: Initial Stage (Early Fasting) Intermediate Stage Advanced Stage Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 diabetes: Type 2 diabetes: Metabolic Alterations in Diabetes Mellitus Longstanding Diabetes Leads to Complications Assessment of a Diabetic Patient Test for Diagnosis and Monitoring of Diabetes Fructosamine Tests in Assessment of Long Term Complications of Diabetes Other Tests Metabolism of Xenobiotics Biological Damages Caused by Xenobiotics Metabolism of Xenobiotics Phase I Reactions Hydroxylation: Oxidation: Reduction: Hydrolysis: Phase II Reactions Glucuronic acid: Sulphate: Glutamine-glycine conjugate: Glutathione: Acetate: The Most Versatile Biocatalysts: P-450 Cytochromes Isoforms of Cytochrome P-450 (CYP) Alcohol Metabolism Biochemical consequences: Polymorphism Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 16-Porphyrins And Bile Pigments General Characteristics of Porphyrins Biological Significance of Porphyrins Nomenclature Synthesis of Haem Stage I: Formation of Tetrapyrrole Ring Step 1: Formation of -Aminolevulinic Acid Step 2: Formation of Porphobilinogen Step 3: Formation of Uroporphyrinogen III Stage II: Processing of Uroporphyrinogen III to Protoporphyrin IX Stage III: Formation of Haem Regulation of Haem Synthesis Disorders of Porphyrin Metabolism: Porphyrias Salient Features of Porphyrias Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP) Clinical Features and Laboratory Findings Treatment Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria Porphyria Cutanea Tarda Others Acquired Porphyrias Diagnosis of Porphyrias Haem Breakdown Note Bilirubin Metabolism Plasma Bilirubin Jaundice Haemolytic Jaundice Hepatic Jaundice Note Obstructive Jaundice Physiologic Jaundice of the Newborn Role of Phototherapy and Phenobarbital Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn Genetic Causes of Jaundice Gilberts syndrome CriglerŠNajjar syndrome DubinŠJohnson and Rotor syndrome Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 17-Oxygen Transporters: Haemoglobin And Myoglobin Haemoglobin Basic Structure Globin chains Secondary and tertiary structures of globin polypeptides Haem group Proximal and disfai histidine The ferrous iron in haem Quaternary Structure Allosteric Effects Binding of Oxygen: Positive Cooperativity Note Significance of Positive Cooperativity Note Bohr Effect Significance of Bohr Effect Effect of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) Rapoporf-Luebering Cycle Clinical Significance of 2,3-BPG Role in Stored Blood Molecular Mechanism of Allosteric Effects**This topic relates to higher level learning and it is meant only for postgradua ... The Tense (T) Form The Relaxed (R) Form Mechanism of Positive Cooperativity in Oxygenation Mechanism of Bohr Effect Effect of CO2 Mechanism of Oxygen Off-loading by BPG Haemoglobin Fetal Haemoglobin (HbF) Embryonic Haemoglobins Minor Adult Haemoglobin (HbA2) Haemoglobin Derivatives Methaemoglobin Carboxy Haemoglobin Glycated Haemoglobins Sulfhaemoglobin Cyanmethaemoglobin Haemoglobinopathies Diagnostic Analysis of Normal and Mutant Haemoglobins Sickle Cell Anaemia Molecular Defect Sticky Patches and Tubular Polymer Formation Clinical Features Diagnosis Sickling test Electrophoresis Solubility test Treatment Protection from Tropical Malaria HbC Disease Thalassaemias Molecular Defect Types of Thalassaemias a-Thalassaemias b-Thalassaemias Clinical features of b-thalassaemia major Treatment Myoglobin Basic Structure Oxygen-binding Characteristics of Myoglobin Anaemias Decreased production of erythrocytes Enhanced destruction of erythrocytes Haemorrhage Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 18-Vitamins Classification and Nomenclature Sources, Daily Requirements and Deficiency of Vitamins Dietary Vitamin Deficiencies Water-soluble Vitamins Thiamine (Vitamin B1) Structure Absorption and Transport Coenzyme Functions Requirement and Dietary Sources Deficiency Assessment of Thiamine Status Toxicity Redox Vitamins: Niacin (Vitamin B3) and Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Niacin Structure Coenzyme Forms of Niacin Coenzyme Activities Clinical Deficiency Therapeutic Uses Riboflavin Structure Coenzyme Activity Absorption, Transport and Storage Clinical Deficiency Deficiency Manifestations Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) Structure Absorption, Transport and Excretion Coenzyme Functions Clinical Deficiency Assessment of pyridoxine status Pantothenic Acid Biotin (Vitamin B7 or H) Structure Requirement, Sources and Causes of Deficiency Coenzyme Functions Clinical Deficiency Cobalamin (Vitamin B12) Structure Synthesis Absorption, Transport and Distribution Vitamin B12 Transport Proteins Vitamin B12 can be Stored Coenzyme Functions Requirement and Dietary Sources Causes and Effects of B12 Deficiency Clinical Manifestations of B12 Deficiency Folic Acid Structure Synthesis Activation Absorption and Distribution Coenzyme Functions Causes and Effects of Folate Deficiency Folate Trap Hypothesis Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Absorption and Storage Structure and Synthesis Functions Clinical Deficiency Note Fat-soluble Vitamins Vitamin A Chemistry and Nomenclature Absorption Transport Storage Functions Vitamin A and Vision Mechanism of Vision Other Functions of Vitamin A Requirements and Dietary Sources Clinical Deficiency Vitamin A Toxicity Vitamin D Historical Perspective Synthesis Requirements, Dietary Sources, Absorption and Transport Activation Calcitriol is a Hormone Biochemical Effects Regulation of Calcitriol Other Vitamin D Metabolites Causes and Manifestations of Vitamin D Deficiency Note Hypervitaminosis D Vitamin E (a-Tocopherol) Chemical Nature Absorption, Transport and Metabolism Functions Clinical Deficiency Hypervitaminosis E Vitamin K Chemistry Absorption and Storage Functions Role of Gla in clotting Clinical Deficiency Toxicity Exercises Write short notes on Chapter 19-Minerals Absorption, Transport and Excretion of Minerals Mineral Deficiency or Excess Sources and Daily Requirements of Minerals Major Elements Sodium Biochemical Functions Neuromuscular excitability Fluid balance Acid-base balance Membrane transport Absorption and Elimination Requirement and Dietary Sources Disturbances of Serum Sodium Hyponatraemia Hypernatraemia Potassium Biochemical Functions Neuromuscular excitability Contraction of heart Intracellular fluid volume Hydrogen ion concentration Secondary active transport Dietary Sources, Absorption and Elimination Disturbances of Serum Potassium Hypokalaemia Hyperkalaemia Chloride Biochemical functions Absorption Requirement and dietary sources Alterations of serum chloride levels Calcium and Phosphorus Magnesium Biochemical Functions Enzyme activator Neuromuscular excitability Glucose tolerance Others Absorptions and Elimination Requirement and Dietary Sources Disturbances of Serum Magnesium Trace Elements Iron Biochemical Functions Requirements and Dietary Sources Absorption Iron in Intestinal Cells Factors Affecting Iron Absorption Transport in Plasma and Cell-uptake Iron Storage Pathological Conditions Iron overload Signs and symptoms of haemochromatosis Treatment Iron deficiency Copper Biochemical Functions Requirements and Dietary Sources Absorption Transport and Excretion Disorders of Copper Metabolism Other Trace Elements Selenium Biochemical Functions Requirements and Dietary Sources Deficiency and Toxicity Zinc Biochemical Functions Requirement and Dietary Sources Metabolism Deficiency Toxicity Molybdenum Biochemical Functions Requirement, Dietary Sources and Absorption Toxicity Cobalt Chromium Biochemical Functions Absorption Requirement and Dietary Sources Deficiency Manganese Biochemical Functions Requirements, Dietary Sources and Absorption Deficiency Toxicity Iodine Biochemical Functions Requirement and Dietary Sources Absorption Transport and Excretion Deficiency Toxicity Fluoride Biochemical Functions Requirements and Dietary Sources Deficiency and Toxicity Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 20-Nucleic Acid Chemistry And Nucleotide Metabolism Nucleotides: Chemistry and Biological Significance Basic Structure Nitrogenous Bases Major Bases Other Purine and Pyrimidine Bases Chemical Properties of Bases Sugars Nucleosides Nucleotides Nomenclature Nucleoside-Diphosphate and Triphosphate Functions Purine Metabolism Synthesis of Purine Nucleotides The de novo Pathway Stage 1: Synthesis of IMP Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reactions 3Š11 Stage II: Conversion of IMP to AMP and GMP Conversion of Nucleoside Monophosphate to Nucleoside Diphosphate and Triphosphate Conversion of Ribonucleotides to Deoxyribonucleotides Regulation of the de novo Pathway The first level regulation The second level of regulation The Salvage Pathways Inhibitors of Purine Synthesis Development of nucleic acid analogues as antineoplastic drugs Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides Catabolism of Adenosine 5'-Phosphate Catabolism of Guanosine Monophosphate Note Diseases of Purine Metabolism Hyperuricaemia and Gout History Causes and Consequences of Hyperuricaemia Primary Gout Increased activity of PRPP synthetase Note Glucose 6-phosphatase deficiency Deficiency of hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) Secondary Gout Uric Acid Pool in Gout Low Solubility: The Offending Factor in Gout Gauty arthritis Nephropathy Treatment of Gout Pseudogout LeschŠNyhan Syndrome Hypouricaemia Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency Xanthinuria Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency Adenine Phosphoribosyltransferase Deficiency Familial Renal Hypouricaemia Pyrimidine Metabolism Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides Reactions of Pyrimidine Synthesis Stage I: Synthesis of UMP Stage II: Conversion of UMP to Cytidine and Thymidine Nucleotides Conversion of UMP to cytidine nucleotides Formation of thymidine nucleotides Regulation of pyrimidine synthesis Salvage Reactions of Pyrimidine Synthesis Catabolism of Pyrimidine Nucleotides Orotic Aciduria Biochemical Defect Clinical manifestations Treatment Reys Syndrome Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 21-Molecular Biology I: DNA Structure, Genetic Role and Replication Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Basic Chemistry Size of DNA The Double Helix Sense and antisense DNA strands Alternate Higher Order Structures of DNA A-DNA Z-DNA Base Composition Dictates Higher Order Structure Some Physical Properties of DNA Denaturation Melting Temperature Monitoring of Strand Separation Denatured DNA can Undergo Renaturation Buoyant Density Hybridization DNA Supercoiling and Topoisomerases DNA as Genetic Material Extrachromosomal DNA Gene Sequencing Architecture of the Human Genome Histones Note Nucleosomes Packaging of DNA Some Commonly Used Terms Related to Molecular Genetics Gene Families and Pseudogenes Jumping Genes Insertion Sequence Transposons Silent Genes Complex Genes Cell Interaction Genes Replication Replication is Semiconservative Three Phases of Replication Initiation Helicases Single-stranded Binding Proteins (SSB Protein) DNA Gyrase Elongation DNA template Precursors Primer Termination Inhibitors of DNA Replication Types of DNA Polymerases Exonuclease Activities of DNA Polymerases Mutations Types of Mutations Point Mutations Insertion or Deletion of Base Pairs Triplet Expansion Mutagens and Mutagenesis Basal Mutagenesis (or Spontaneous Mutations) Induced Mutagenesis Radiations Chemicals Oxidative Radicals Mutagenesis and Carcinogenesis Repair Systems for Mutated DNA Base Excision Repair and AP Site Repair Mismatch Repair Mechanism of repair Nucleotide Excision Repair Direct Repair Recombination Repair SOS Repair Response Defective DNA Repair and Human Diseases Note Site Specific Recombination Site Specific Recombination General Recombination Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 22-Molecular Biology II: Transcription and Translation Types of RNAs Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA Messenger RNA Note Transcription RNA Polymerase (RNAP) Three Stages of Transcription Initiation How does the enzyme find the promoter? Role of Subunit Role of promoter sequences Elongation Sense (+) and antisense (-) strands Termination Post-transcriptional Modifications rRNA tRNA mRNA Antibiotic Inhibitors of Transcription Agents that Bind DNA Agents that Bind RNAP Genetic Code Deciphering the Genetic Code Major Features of Genetic Code Degeneracy Unambiguous Universal Non-overlapping and Commaless Colinear Stop Codons Codon-Anticodon Pairing Translation tRNAs are the Adaptor Molecules Attachment of Amino Acids to tRNA Molecules Ribosomes: The Organelles for Protein Synthesis Note How Does Ribosome Know Where to Begin Protein Synthesis AUG Codon Shine-Dalgarno Sequence The Process of Protein Synthesis Initiation Elongation Step 1: Codon Recognition Step 2: Formation of a Peptide Bond Step 3: Translocation Termination Polysomes Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis Post-translational Modification of Polypeptide Chain Protein Targeting Targeting of Secretory Proteins Signal hypothesis Nuclear and Mitochondrial Protein Targeting Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 23-Molecular Biology III: Regulation Of Prokaryotic Gene Expression And Molecular Genetics Constitutive and Inducible Proteins Operon: A Coordinated Unit of Gane Expression Lactose Operon Role of Lac Repressor in Control Mechanism of the Lac Operon Role of Catabolite Activator Protein Tryptophan Operon Operator Control Control by Attenuation Note Protein-DNA Interaction in Transcriptional Regulation Specific Factors Note Regulatory Proteins Regulatory Mechanism in Viruses Genetic Diseases Analytical Tools Categories of Genetic Disorders Chromosomal Disorders Single Gene Defect Multifactorial Disorders Somatic Cell Gene Defects Mitochondrial Mutations Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 24-Molecular Biology IV: Eukaryotic Chromosome And Gene Expression Replication has Multiple Sites of Origin Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases Role of Telomeres in Eukaryotic Replication Telomerase, Aging and Cancer Cell Cycle G0 phase Regulation Untranscribed Human DNA Gene Distribution Along DNA Repetitive Sequences in Human Genome Highly Repetitive Sequences Satellites, Minisatellites and Microsatellites Moderately Repeated Sequences Exon Shuffling Relation of Introns to Evolution Transcription Types of RNA Polymerases Chemistry of mRNA Synthesis Initiation Promoters Enhancers and silencers Response elements Mechanism of Initiation The basal initiation complex Histones inhibit initiation of transcription Elongation Termination Transcription Factors General characteristics Structural elements Major classes Functions Regulation of activity Post-transcriptional Processing Processing of mRNA The 5 end of the mRNA is capped The 3 end of the mRNA receives a polyadenylate tail The removal of introns and rejoining of exons Mechanism of Action of Spliceosomes Note Processing of rRNAs Processing of tRNA Translation Process of Translation Initiation Step 1: Dissociation of Ribosome Step 2: Formation of 43s Pre-initiation Complex Step 3: Formation of 40s initiation complex Step 4: Formation of 80s Initiation Complex Elongation Termination Diphtheria Toxin Inactivates eEF2 Protein Folding and Prion Diseases Molecular Chaperones Heat shock proteins Enzymes/Proteins Involved in Protein Folding Prion Diseases Translation in Mitochondria Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression Changes in Genes Gene Amplification Gene Rearrangement Gene Loss Modification of DNA Regulation at the Level of Transcription Regulation at Post-transcriptional Level Use of Alternative Promoters and Different Polyadenylation Sites Tissue-specific Splicing mRNA Editing Regulation by Nuclear RNase The mRNA Stability Translational Regulation Differential Expression of a Parental Allele of a Gene Need for Elaborate System of Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 25-Recombinant Dna Techgenetic And Genetic Engineering Techniques and Enzymes Used in Manipulation of DNA Annealing Properties Enzymatic Reactions Restriction Endonucleases Nomenclature Restriction Enzyme Cutting Frequency Biological Functions of REs Terminal Transferases Reverse Transcriptase (RT or RNA-Dependent DNA Polymerase) Ribonuclease H DNA Ligases Cloning Vectors Plasmids Bacteriophages Insertion of Foreign DNA into Bacteriophage Cosmids Others DNA Amplification and Cloning Cell-based Cloning Step 1: Isolation of the Target Gene Step 2: Introduction of Target DNA into Replicon Step 3: Transformation of the Host Cell Selection of transformed cells Further selection of colony having the desired DNA Step 4: Isolation of DNA Insert or its Protien Product Enzyme-based Cloning DNA Library Genomic Library cDNA Library Nucleotide Probes Probes must have a Label to be Identified Techniques for Labelling Probes Uses of Nucleotide Probes Blotting Techniques Southern Blot Technique Northern Blot Technique Western Blot Technique In situ Hybridization Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology Medical Diagnosis Sickle Cell Mutation Analysis Analysis with Allele-specific Probes Dot-blot Analysis Steps Uses Gene Therapy Delivery Methods of Therapeutic Gene into Target Cell Physical Methods Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Retroviruses DNA Viruses Achievements and Limitations of Gene Therapy Haemophilia B (Deficiency of Factor IX) Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) Non-genetic Conditions Germline Gene Therapy Current Status of Gene Therapy Commercial Preparation of Proteins and Hormones Construction of Useful Organisms Basic Applications Site-directed Mutagenesis Knockout Mice Analytic Techniques Transgenesis Agricultural and Livestock Industries Enhancement Engineering Other Uses Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Origin of RFLP Clinical Applications Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Requirements for PCR Steps Reverse transcriptase PCR PCR-based DNA Cloning versus Cell-based Cloning Advantages Disadvantages Applications of PCR PCR in Prenatal Diagnosis PCR in Pre-implantation Diagnosis Application to Forensic Medicine Linkage Studies of Disease Trait Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases Archaeology and Paleontology Others PCR-based Methods in Advanced DNA Research Restriction Site Polymorphism (RSP) Mutation Detection by Allele-Specific PCR Detection of Deletions in Genes Causing Diseases Detection of Microsatellite Repeats Human Genome Project: Current Status and Future Goals Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 26-Gastrointestinal pathobiochemistry Digestion and Absorption Carbohydrates Proteins Digestion of Dietary Proteins Begins in the Stomach Bulk of Protein Digestion Takes Place in Duodenum Final Stages of Digestion Occur in Small Intestine Absorption Lipids Emulsification Enzymatic Hydrolysis Micelle Formation Absorption Organ Function Tests Gastric Function Tests Pancreatic Function Tests Direct Tests Secretin-cholecystokinin Test Diagnostic significance Other Direct Tests Note Indirect Tests Determination of Enzymes in Serum and Urine Serum amylase Serum lipase Study of faeces Determination of sweat chloride Tubeless Pancreatic Function Tests Fluorescein dilaurate test 14C PABA test Demonstration of an Associated Abnormality Visual Procedures Intestinal Function Test Test for Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption Tests of Disaccharidase Deficiency Tests for Monosaccharide Absorption Hydrogen Breath Test Others Liver Function Tests Tests Based on Excretory Function of Liver Serum Bilirubin Estimation BSP Elimination Test Tests Based on Role of Liver in Intermediary Metabolism Galactose Tolerance Test Amino Acid Profile Tests Based on Synthetic Functions of Liver Serum Protein Estimation Prothrombin Time Tests Based on Detoxification Function of Liver Arterial Ammonia Levels 14C Amino-Antipyrine Excretion Test Tests Based on Diagnostic Enzymes Exercises Essay type question Write short notes on Chapter 27-Free Radicals In Health And Disease Incomplete Reduction of Oxygen Reactive Oxygen Intermediates and Free Radicals Transition Metals Generation of Oxygen Free Radicals Electron Leakage Normal Oxidation-reduction Reactions Exogenous Agents Respiratory Burst Phagocytosis by white blood cells: Hydrogen peroxide is not a free radical: The respiratory burst: Damage Produced by Free Radicals Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Haemoglobin Free Radical Scavenger Systems Preventive Mechanisms Interceptive Mechanisms Others Free Radicals in Aetiology of Disease Parkinsonism Atherosclerosis Diabetes Mellitus Cancer Alzheimers Disease Male Infertility Rheumatoid Arthritis Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 28-Energy Metabolism And Nutrition Calorific Values Respiratory Quotient (RQ) Components of Energy Requirements Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) Normal Values Measurement of BMR Factors Affecting BMR Body size and weight Age Sex Genetic differences Racial differences Nutritional status Endocrinal state Climate Drugs Lifestyle Disease states Specific Dynamic Action (SDA) Physical Activity Total Energy Requirement of an Average Normal Person Recommendations for Dietary Nutrients Factors Affecting RDA Proximate Principles of Food Nutritional Importance of Carbohydrates Available Carbohydrates Functions Dietary Fibres Physiological Significance Adverse Effects Nutritional Importance of Fats Functions Role of PUFAs Nutritional Importance of Proteins Protein Quality Biological Value (BV) Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) Chemical Score Digestibility Coefficient (DC) Net Protein Utilization (NPU) Nitrogen Balance Protein Sparing Action Reasons for Increase in Protein Requirement Balanced Diet Pregnancy Lactation Nutritional Implications of Diseases Undernutrition: Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) Marasmus Kwashiorkor Biochemical Changes in PEM Treatment Overnutrition Obesity Common Causes Biochemical Profile Diet and Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 29-Biochemical Endocrinology General Characteristics of Hormone Systems Chemical Diversity of Hormones Biosynthesis Biosynthesis of Insulin Transport Target Tissue Concept Feedback Concept Not all Feedbacks are Negative Hormone Receptors General Characteristics Receptor-effector Coupling Regulation of Receptors Down Regulation Covalent Modulation Structure of Receptors Insulin Receptor Hormone Receptors and Diseases Mechanism of Action of Hormones Group I Group II Mechanism of Action of Group I Hormones Sterol-derived Hormones Iodothyronine Hormones Mechanism of Action of Group II Hormones cAMP as Second Messenger (Group IIa Hormones) Action of cAMP: An Overview The cAMP Cascade AMplifies Hormonal Stimulus Dissociation of cAMP Note The Inhibitory G-Protein (Gi) Other Types of G-proteins Modification of G-protein by Some Bacterial Toxins Phosphatidylinositides/Calcium System as Second Messenger (Group IIc Hormones) Inositol 1,4,5-Triphosphate (IP3) Diacylglycerol (DAG) cGMP as Second Messenger (Group IIb Hormones) Cross-talk Signalling by Nitric Oxide (NO) Protein Kinase o Phosphatase Cascade as Intracellular Messenger Neurotransmitters Exercises Essay type questions Write Short Notes on Chapter 30-Action Of Hormones Hypothalamus- pituitary System Hypothalamic Hormones Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH) Corticotropin-releasing Hormone (CRH) Arginine Vasopressin (AVP) Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH) Growth Hormone-releasing Hormone (GHRH) Growth Hormone Release-inhibiting Hormone (GHRIH) Prolactin Release-inhibiting Factor (PRIF) Anterior Pituitary Hormones The Master Gland Classification Growth Hormone (GH) Chemistry Biochemical Functions Regulation Clinical Disorders of GH Secretion Prolactin Chemistry Regulation of PRL Secretion Biochemical Functions Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) Chemistry Biochemical Functions Regulation Gonadotropins Chemistry Biochemical Functions Regulation Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) Chemistry Biochemical Functions Regulation Hormones of Posterior Pituitary Oxytocin Functions Vasopressin Functions Hormones of Thyroid Gland Biosynthesis of Thyroid Hormones Site of Synthesis Substrates for Thyroid Hormones Steps in Synthesis Step 1: Iodide Uptake Step 2: Iodide to Iodine Oxidation Step 3: Iodination of Tyrosyl Residues in Tgb Step 4: Coupling Reactions Storage and Release of Thyroid Hormones Transport of T3 and T4 Metabolic Fate of T3 and T4 Regulation of T3 and T4 Synthesis Biochemical Functions of Thyroid Hormones Clinical Disorders of Thyroid Functions Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism Simple or Diffuse Goitre Hormones of Adrenal Cortex Chemistry Synthesis of Steroid Hormones Transport, Metabolism and Excretion Biochemical Functions of Adrenal Steroids Regulation of Synthesis and Secretion of Adrenal Steroids Renin-angiotensin system: Dysfunctions of Adrenal Cortex Hormones of Adrenal Medulla Synthesis, Storage and Secretion Metabolism Biochemical Functions Abnormalities of Catecholamine Production The Receptors for Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Gastrointestinal Hormones Gastrin Secretin Cholecystokinin Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) Pancreatic Hormones Insulin Glucagon Pancreatic Polypeptide Motilin Hormones of Gonads Androgens Synthesis Testosterone is a pro-hormone: Transport, Metabolism and Excretion Biochemical Functions Mechanism of Action and Regulation Clinical Disorders of Androgen Secretion Hypogonadism: Hypergonadism: Oestrogens Biosynthesis Transport and Metabolism Functions Clinical Disorders of Oestrogen Secretion Progesterone Biochemical Functions Regulation of Female Sex Hormones Menstrual Cycle Follicular phase Luteal phase Note Menopause Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 31-Calcium And Phosphate: Metabolism And Regulation Calcium Nutritional Requirement and Sources Sources Functions In Bone In Ionic Form As Intracellular Messenger Other Functions Metabolism Absorption Factors promoting absorption Factors inhibiting absorption Plasma Calcium Excretion Regulation of Serum Calcium Levels Parathyroid Hormone (Parathormone; PTH) Source Structure of PTH Synthesis and Secretion of PTH Transport and Metabolism Mechanism of Action Renal cells Osteoblasts Biological Effects Effect on bones Effect on kidneys Effect on intestine Calcitriol Calcitonin Source and Structure Secretion Biological Effects Steroid and Peptide Hormones Self-regulatory Loop in Calcium Homeostasis Disorders of Calcium Metabolism Hypercalcaemia Clinical features Hypocalcaemia Clinical features of hypocalcaemia Osteoporosis Phosphorus Nutritional Requirement Functions Role in ICF Role in ECF Metabolism Regulation of Serum Phosphate Levels Deficiency Toxicity Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 32-Cancer Tumours: Benign and Malignant Distinctive Features of Malignant Cells De-differentiation: High mitotic rate and disordered growth: Genetic abnormalities: Hereditary: Monoclonal origin: Loss of apoptosis: Biochemical alterations: Metastasis Aetiology Somatic Mutations How does the Protooncogene Activation Cause Malignancy Antioncogene Inactivation Š More Common Cause of Malignant Transformation RB1 Gene p53 Gene Oncogenic Viruses Oncogenic Retroviruses Viral Oncogenes Resemble Cellular Protooncogenes (Table 32.4) DNA Oncogenic Viruses Some examples of DNA oncogenic viruses Chemical Carcinogenesis Radiation Energy Molecular Basis of Protooncogene Activation Point Mutation of Protooncogene Gene Rearrangements Burkitts Lymphoma Leukaemias Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma Gene Amplification Promoter Insertion Enhancer Insertion Some Oncoproteins and Associated Cancers Growth Factors Growth Factor Receptors GTP-binding Proteins Non-receptor Kinases Tumour Markers Characteristics of a Required Tumour Marker Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA): a-Fetoprotein (AFP): Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): Prostate specific antigen (PSA): Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 33-Immunology Historical Milestones Discovery of Two Types of Immune Responses Humoral and cellular Selective and instructional theories Non-specific and specific Immune Responses Non-specific (Innate) Immune Response Specific Immune Response Antigens and Immunogens Haptens Role of Lymphocytes The B Lymphocytes Structure of a slg Activation of B-cell The T Lymphocytes Structure of TCR T cell subpopulations Activation of T cells Natural Killer Cells Organs of the Immune System Primary Lymphoid Organs Thymus Structure of thymus Selection processes during maturation Bone Marrow Secondary Lymphoid Organs Lymph Nodes Spleen MALT Lymphocyte traffic around lymphoid tissue Cells of the Immune System Lymphocytes Macrophages Functions Phagocytosis Note Antigen presentation and processing Secretory role Granulocytes Functions Dendritic Cells Mast Cells Molecules of Immune Response Proteins Encoded by Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) General organization Class I molecules Class II molecules Class III molecules MHC loci and allelic variants Subunit structure of MHC molecules Cytokines General characteristics Biological effects Note Molecules Involved in Antigen Recognition T-cell receptors B-cell receptors Note MHC I and MHC II molecules Immunoglobulins Antibodies illustrate excellent diversity of the immune system Assembly of light chain (kL) gene Assembly of the heavy chain gene(Fig. 24.12) Immunoglobulin class switching (isotype switching) Monoclonal antibodies and hybridoma technology Uses of monoclonal antibodies More about Complement Cascade Activation of the complement cascade Note Complement components Sequence of events in complement activation Biological activities of complement activation by-products Control The Recognition of and Response to Nonself Generation of specificity and diversity Clonal selection Cellular Cooperation in the Immune Response Antigen Processing and Presentation Activation and Proliferation of T-helper Cells Generation of the Humoral Response Generation of the Cell-mediated Response Non-specific Effector Cells are influenced by TH Cells and Immunoglobulins TH Influences activity of various non-specific effector cells Immunoglobulins provide specificity to non-specific effector cells Specific Immune Response to Some Infections Mycobacterial Infection Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection Vaccines Types of Vaccines Inactivated or killed vaccine Subunit vaccine DNA vaccine Immunological Techniques Precipitin Reaction Agglutination Radioimmunoassay (RIA) Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Immunologic Dysfunction Immunodeficiency Disorders Allergy Autoimmunity Exercises Essay type questions Write short notes on Chapter 34-Tests For Thyroid, Adrenal And Kidney Functions Thyroid Function Tests Assay of Hormones Radioactive Iodide Uptake (RAIU) Serum TSH Thyroid Hormone Binding Proteins TRH Stimulation Test Non-specific Indices Tests for Detecting Damage to Thyroid Adrenal Function Tests Tests for Glucocorticoid Functions Tests to Establish Diagnosis Assessment of Diurnal Rhythm Estimation Urinary Free Cortisol Low Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test Tests to Establish Aetiology Measurement of Plasma ACTH High Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test ACTH Stimulation Tests Metyrapone Stimulation Test CRH Stimulation Test Tests for Mineralcorticoid Secretion Plasma Aldosterone Plasma Renin Activity Renal Function Tests Routine Urinalysis Glomerular Function Tests Serum Urea Serum Creatinine Clearance Tests Creatinine Clearance Significance: Urea Clearance Inulin Clearance Tubular Functions Urine Concentration Test Dilution Test PSP Excretion Test Para-amino Hippurate (PAH) Clearance Test Acidification Test Other Blood Determinations in Renal Diseases Calcium and Phosphorus Uric Acid Serum Electrolytes Exercises Essay type question Write short notes on Index
