Terrestrial Ecosystems and Biodiversity, 2nd Edition

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
About The Handbook of Natural Resources
Acknowledgments
Aims and Scope
Editor
Contributors
Section I: Atmosphere
	1 Acid Rain and Nitrogen Deposition Introduction
		Sources and Distribution
		Human Health Effects
		Structural Impacts
		Ecosystem Impacts
		Reducing Acidic Deposition Effects
		References
	2 Acid Rain and Precipitation Chemistry
		Introduction
		The Chemistry of Acid Rain
		Drop-Scale Transport Processes of Acid Rain
		Environmental Factors Influencing the Acid Rain Formation and Impacts
		References
	3 Air Pollutants: Elevated Carbon Dioxide
		Introduction
		Atmospheric Change: Concentrations and Trends
		Effects of O[sub(3)] and CO[sub(2)] Alone
		Interactive Effects of Air Pollutants and CO[sub(2)]
		Conclusion
		References
	4 Albedo
		Introduction
		Factors Affecting Albedo
		Measurement of Albedo
		Conclusions
		References
	5 Arctic Oscillation
		Introduction
		AO and Atmospheric Circulation
		Global Effects of AO
		AO and Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode
		AO and North Atlantic Oscillation
		AO and Arctic Warming
		Spatial Variation of AO
		References
	6 Asian Monsoon
		Introduction
		Major Features of Asian Monsoon Climate and Its Two Sub-Systems: South Asian Monsoon and East Asian Monsoon
		Variability of Asian Monsoons
		Human–Monsoon Interaction
		Global Monsoon
		References
		Bibliography
	7 Atmospheric Acid Deposition
		Introduction
		Major Emission Sources and Trends
		Trends in Acid Deposition
		Environmental Effects of Acid Deposition
		Conclusion: Acid Deposition Today and in the Future
		References
	8 Atmospheric Circulation: General
		Introduction
		Overturning Circulation
		Poleward Energy Transport by the General Circulation
		Role of the Hydrological Cycle in the General Circulation
		Asymmetric Flow: Teleconnection Patterns, Monsoons
		Human Effects: CO[sub(2)] , Aerosols, Land Cover Change
		Conclusion
		References
	9 Circulation Patterns: Atmospheric and Oceanic
		Introduction
		Circulation Patterns of the Tropics
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Bibliography
	10 Dew Point Temperature
		Introduction
		Definition and Concepts
		Determination of Dew Point Temperature
		References
	11 Estimating Arctic Sea-Ice Shortwave Albedo
		Introduction
		Arctic Sea-Ice Albedo Datasets
		Direct-Estimation Algorithm
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	12 Fronts
		Introduction
		Definition
		Formation
		Cross-Frontal Circulation
		Cyclones, Jet Streams, and Fronts
		Weather Associated with Fronts
		Other Fronts and Front-Like Phenomena
		Impacts of Fronts
		Conclusion
		References
	13 Land–Atmosphere Interactions
		Introduction
		Processes
		Natural Phenomena
		Manmade Activities
		Bibliography
	14 Ozone and Ozone Depletion
		Introduction
		Atmospheric Ozone
		Ozone Depletion
		Conclusion
		References
	15 Transpiration and Physical Evaporation: United States Variability
		Introduction
		Seasonal and Regional Variability of Et over the Conterminous University of Maryland United States
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	16 Water Storage: Atmospheric
		Introduction
		Water Vapor
		The Hydrologic Cycle
		Total Abundance of Global Water Vapor
		Global Distribution of Water Vapor
		Vertical Distribution of Water Vapor
		Residence Time in the Atmosphere
		Measuring Atmospheric Water Vapor
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
Section II Weather and Climate
	17 Agroclimatology
		Introduction
		Agroclimatology Today: Some Important Variables
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		Acknowledgments
		References
	18 Climate: Classification
		Introduction
		Climate Classification Schemes
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	19 Climate: Extreme Events
		Introduction
		Sampling
		Climate Change
		Conclusion
		References
	20 Climate and Climatology
		Introduction
		Climate System Controls
		Climate Classification
		Conclusion
		References
		Bibliography
	21 Climatology: Moist Enthalpy and Long- Term Anomaly Trends
		Introduction
		Definition of Moist Enthalpy
		Climatology
		Dev Niyogi Moist Enthalpy Variability and Anomaly Trends
		Conclusion: On the Importance of Heat Content
		Acknowledgments
		References
	22 Crops and the Atmosphere: Trace Gas Exchanges
		Introduction
		Impacts of Trace Gases on Crops
		Factors Controlling Trace Gas Exchange
		Plant Physiological Controls
		Internal Transfer Resistances
		Conclusion
		References
	23 Drought: Management
		Introduction
		Shifting the Emphasis from Crisis to Drought Risk Management
		Drought Risk Challenges and Opportunities
		Conclusion
		References
	24 Drought: Precipitation, Evapotranspiration, and Soil Moisture Joshua B. Fisher
		Introduction
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	25 Drought: Resistance
		Introduction
		Discussion
		Drought Resistance Traits
		Hierarchy of Drought Resistance Traits
		Drought Resistance Traits in Terms of the Passioura Water Model
		Conclusion
		References
	26 El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation
		Introduction
		What is ENSO?
		Mean Tropical Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions
		ENSO Evolution
		Predicting El Nino Events
		Conclusion
		References
		Bibliography
	27 Meteorology: Tropical
		Introduction
		Major Climate and Weather Systems in the Tropics
		Conclusion
		References
	28 Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions
		Introduction
		Air–Sea Feedback
		Distribution of Air–Sea Fluxes
		Diagnosis of Air–Sea Feedback
		Dynamical Interactions
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	29 Oceans: Observation and Prediction
		Introduction
		What is the Path Forward?
		How are Observations Made in the Oceans?
		What Numerical Ocean Models are Available?
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	30 Tropical Cyclones
		Introduction Using a Western Hemisphere Perspective
		Life Cycle
		Tropical Cyclone Structure
		Damage from Tropical Cyclones
		Global Tropical Cyclone Prediction, Climatology, and Terminology
		Excellent Background Information and Imbedded Links on Hurricanes are Available at the Following Websites (Accessed September 2, 2013)
		References
		Bibliography
	31 Urban Heat Islands
		Introduction
		Types of UHIs and Their Characteristics
		Causes of the UHI: The Urban Energy Budget
		Causes of the UHI: Characteristics of the Urban Surface
		Weather and Climate Influences
		Heat Island Impacts
		References
	32 Wind Speed Probability Distribution
		Introduction
		General Features of the Wind Speed Pdf
		Empirical Models of the Wind Speed Probability Distribution
		Relation of Wind Speed with Vector Wind Component Pdfs
		Mechanistic Models of the Wind Speed Probability Distribution
		Conclusions
		References
Section III Climate Change
	33 Climate Change
		Introduction
		Natural Causes of Climate Change
		Human Causes of Climate Change
		Climate Models
		Detecting and Attributing Climate Change
		Conclusion
		References
		Bibliography
	34 Climate Change: Boreal Forests
		Introduction
		Climate Change
		Boreal Forests
		Conclusion
		References
	35 Climate Change: Coastal Marine Ecosystems
		Introduction
		Climate Change in the Ocean
		Biological Responses to Climate Change in Coastal Marine Ecosystems
		Economic Implications
		Managing for Risk
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	36 Climate Change: Polar Regions
		Introduction
		The Geological Record of the Cenozoic Era and the Quaternary  Period
		Holocene
		The Anthropocene
		The Arctic
		Antarctica
		Concluding Remarks
		References
		Bibliography
	37 Climate Change: Effects on Habitat Suitability of Tree of Heaven along the Appalachian Trail
		Introduction
		Method
		Result
		Discussion
		Conclusion
		References
	38 Climate Change: Ecosystem Dynamics along the Appalachian Trail
		Introduction
		Methods and Results
		Conclusion
		References
	39 Spatial and Temporal Variations in Global Land Surface Phenology
		Introduction
		Data and Methods
		Results and Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
	40 Spatiotemporal Variations in Precipitation and Temperature over Northeastern Eurasia, 1961–2010
		Introduction
		Study Region and Data
		Method
		Spatial Pattern of the Trends of PRCP, T[sub(max)] , T[sub(min)] , and DTR
		Changes in Regionally Average PRCP,T[sub(max)] ,T[sub(min)], and DTR
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
Index