Technology of cereals: an introduction for students of food science and agriculture

Cover
Related titles
KENT’S TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS:
AN INTRODUCTION FOR STUDENTS OF FOOD SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE
Copyright
Dedication
Biography
Preface to the fifth edition
Preface to the fourth edition
Preface to the third edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the first edition
Acknowledgements
1 - Introduction to cereals and pseudocereals and their production
	1.1 Cereals and Pseudocereals
		1.1.1 General characteristics of grasses
			1.1.1.1 Vegetative features
			1.1.1.2 Reproductive features (inflorescence)
			1.1.1.3 Grain
		1.1.2 Yield of grain
		1.1.3 Growing cereals
			1.1.3.1 Growth degree days
		1.1.4 The importance of cereals
		1.1.5 Multicropping
		1.1.6 Efficiency of production
		1.1.7 Seed certification
		1.1.8 Pests, diseases and weeds
			1.1.8.1 Invertebrate pests
			1.1.8.2 Vertebrate pests
			1.1.8.3 Genetic modification
			1.1.8.4  Integrated pest management
			1.1.8.5 Effects of pests and diseases on grains
		1.1.9 Test weight
	1.2 Characteristics of individual cereal types
		1.2.1 Maize (corn)
			1.2.1.1 Origin and types
			1.2.1.2 Cultivation
			1.2.1.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.1.4 Uses
			1.2.1.5 Global production
		1.2.2 Rice
			1.2.2.1 Origin and types
			1.2.2.2 Cultivation
			1.2.2.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.2.4 Uses
			1.2.2.5 Global production
		1.2.3 Wheat
			1.2.3.1 Origin and types
				Protein content
				Endosperm texture
				Strength
			1.2.3.2 Cultivation
			1.2.3.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.3.4 Uses
			1.2.3.5 Global production
		1.2.4  Barley
			1.2.4.1 Origin and types
			1.2.4.2 Cultivation
			1.2.4.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.4.4 Uses
			1.2.4.5 Global production
		1.2.5 Sorghum
			1.2.5.1 Origin and types
			1.2.5.2 Cultivation
			1.2.5.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.5.4 Uses
			1.2.5.5 Global production
		1.2.6 Millets
			1.2.6.1 Origin
			1.2.6.2 Cultivation
			1.2.6.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.6.4 Uses
			1.2.6.5 Global production
		1.2.7 Oats
			1.2.7.1 Origin and types
			1.2.7.2 Cultivation
			1.2.7.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.7.4 Uses
			1.2.7.5 Global production
		1.2.8 Rye
			1.2.8.1 Origin and types
			1.2.8.2 Cultivation
			1.2.8.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.8.4 Uses
			1.2.8.5 Global production
		1.2.9 Triticale
			1.2.9.1 Origin and types
			1.2.9.2 Cultivation
			1.2.9.3 Diseases and pests
			1.2.9.4 Uses
			1.2.9.5 Global production
	1.3 Pseudocereals
		1.3.1 Buckwheat
			1.3.1.1 Origin and types
			1.3.1.2 Uses
			1.3.1.3 Global production
		1.3.2 Quinoa
			1.3.2.1 Origin and types
			1.3.2.2 Uses
			1.3.2.3 Global production
		1.3.3 Grain amaranth
			1.3.3.1 Origin and types
			1.3.3.2 Uses
			1.3.3.3 Global production
	References
	Further Reading
2 - Production, uses and trade of cereals by continental regions
	2.1 Maize (corn)
		2.1.1 Americas
			Yield
				Uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.1.2 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.1.3 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.1.4 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.1.5 Oceania
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
	2.2 Rice
		2.2.1 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.2.2 Americas
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.2.3 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.2.4 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.2.5 Oceania
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
	2.3 Wheat
		2.3.1 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.3.2 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.3.3 Americas
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.3.4 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.3.5 Oceania
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
	2.4 Barley
		2.4.1 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.4.2 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.4.3 Americas
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.4.4 Oceania
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.4.5 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
	2.5 Sorghum
		2.5.1 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.5.2 Americas
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.5.3 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.5.4 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
		2.5.5 Oceania
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
	2.6 Millet
		2.6.1 Asia
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.6.2 Africa
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
		2.6.3 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
	2.7 Oats
		2.7.1 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
		2.7.2 Americas
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
		2.7.3 Oceania
	2.8 Rye
		2.8.1 Europe
			Production and yield
				Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
	2.9 Triticale
		Production and yield
			Domestic uses
				Exports and imports
	2.10 Buckwheat
	2.11 Quinoa
		Production and yield
			Domestic uses
				Exports
				Imports
	References
	Further reading
3 - Botanical aspects
	3.1 Taxonomy
		3.1.1 Classification
	3.2 Plant reproductive morphology
		3.2.1 The inflorescence
			3.2.1.1 Panicles
			3.2.1.2 Spikes (racemes)
		3.2.2 Pseudocereals
	3.3 Caryopsis initiation and growth
		3.3.1 Grain anatomy
			3.3.1.1 Embryo
			3.3.1.2 Endosperm
			3.3.1.3 Seed coats
		3.3.2 Pericarp
		3.3.3 Grain characteristics of individual cereals and pseudocereals
		3.3.4 Caryopses without a crease
			3.3.4.1 Maize (dent corn)
			3.3.4.2 Rice
			3.3.4.3 Sorghum
			3.3.4.4 Millets
				Pearl millet
				Finger millet
				Foxtail millet
				Teff
		3.3.5 Caryopses with a crease
			3.3.5.1 Wheat
			3.3.5.2 Barley
			3.3.5.3 Rye
			3.3.5.4 Oats
		3.3.6 Pseudocereals
			3.3.6.1 Buckwheat
			3.3.6.2 Quinoa
			3.3.6.3 Grain amaranth
	3.4 Germination
	3.5 Breeding
		3.5.1 Breeding objectives
		3.5.2 Variation
		3.5.3 Hybridization
		3.5.4 Heterosis
		3.5.5 Evolution of breeding strategies
		3.5.6 Ploidy
		3.5.7 Genetic enhancement, genetic modification and genetically modified organisms
			3.5.7.1 Genome editing
	References
	Further Reading
4 - Chemical components and nutrition
	4.1 Introduction
	Part 1. Chemical composition
	4.2 Carbohydrates
		4.2.1 Monosaccharides
		4.2.2 Oligosaccharides
		4.2.3 Polysaccharides
		4.2.4 Pentosans
		4.2.5 Starch
			4.2.5.1 Composition
			4.2.5.2 Granular form
			4.2.5.3 Size distributions
			4.2.5.4 Granule organization
			4.2.5.5 Granule surface and minor components
			4.2.5.6 Technological importance of starch
			4.2.5.7 Gelatinization
			4.2.5.8 Retrogradation
			4.2.5.9 Starch damage
		4.2.6 Cell walls
			4.2.6.1 Fibre
				Crude fibre
				Acid detergent fibre
				Neutral detergent fibre
				Dietary fibre
	4.3 Proteins
		4.3.1 Structure
		4.3.2 Cereal proteins
			4.3.2.1 Soluble proteins
			4.3.2.2 Enzymes
			4.3.2.3 Amylases
			4.3.2.4 β-Glucanases
			4.3.2.5 Proteolytic enzymes
			4.3.2.6 Lipid-modifying enzymes
			4.3.2.7 Phytase
			4.3.2.8 Phenol oxidases
			4.3.2.9 Catalase and peroxidase
			4.3.2.10 Insoluble proteins
			4.3.2.11 α-Zeins
			4.3.2.12 β-Zeins
			4.3.2.13 γ- and δ-Zeins
			4.3.2.14 Other tropical cereals
			4.3.2.15 Temperate cereals
			4.3.2.16 Mutations and technologies
	4.4 Lipids
		4.4.1 Nomenclature
		4.4.2 Fatty acids
			4.4.2.1 Acylglycerols (glycerides)
			4.4.2.2 Phosphoglycerides (phospholipids)
			4.4.2.3 Glycosylglycerides (glycolipids)
			4.4.2.4 Distributions
	4.5 Minerals
	4.6 Vitamins
		4.6.1 Distribution of vitamins in cereals
	Part 2. Nutritional aspects
	4.7 Recommendations
	4.8 Cereals in the diet
		4.8.1 Attributes of cereals as foods
			4.8.1.1 Starch
			4.8.1.2 Protein content and quality
			4.8.1.3 Fibre
			4.8.1.4 Cholesterol
			4.8.1.5 Fats
			4.8.1.6 Minerals
		4.8.2 Effects of processing
			4.8.2.1 Refinement
			4.8.2.2 Cooking/heat treatment
			4.8.2.3 Specific interactions
				Maillard reactions
				Enzymatic changes
			4.8.2.4 Supplementation
			4.8.2.5 Addition of nutrients
		4.8.3 Negative attributes
			4.8.3.1 Phytic acid
			4.8.3.2 Tannins
			4.8.3.3 Harmful effects of alcoholic drinks
			4.8.3.4 Allergies
			4.8.3.5 Schizophrenia
			4.8.3.6 Dental caries
			4.8.3.7 β-Glucans
		4.8.4 Noncereal hazards
			4.8.4.1 Ergotism
			4.8.4.2 Mycotoxins
	References
	Further Reading
5 - Storage, handling and preprocessing
	5.1 Storage facilities
		5.1.1 Material handling
		5.1.2 Dust explosions
	5.2 Deterioration during storage
		5.2.1 Effects of moisture content and storage temperature
		5.2.2 Changes in grains during storage
			5.2.2.1 Respiration
			5.2.2.2 Germination
		5.2.3 Microbial infestation
		5.2.4 Insects and arachnids
			5.2.4.1 Damage caused by insects and mites
		5.2.5 Vertebrate pests
		5.2.6 Control of pests and spoilage in grains during storage
			5.2.6.1 Pesticide residues
	5.3 Storage and preprocessing treatments
		5.3.1 Drying
		5.3.2 Separations
			5.3.2.1 Impurities
			5.3.2.2 Metals
			5.3.2.3 Screening and scalping
			5.3.2.4 Destoners
			5.3.2.5 Unwanted species
			5.3.2.6 Aspiration
		5.3.3 Cleaning
		5.3.4 Screenroom operation
			5.3.4.1 Loop system
		5.3.5 Damping and conditioning
			5.3.5.1 Water penetration
			5.3.5.2 Common or bread wheat
			5.3.5.3 Durum wheat
			5.3.5.4 Rye
			5.3.5.5 Rice
			5.3.5.6 Barley
			5.3.5.7 Maize
			5.3.5.8 Conditioning practice
			5.3.5.9 Conditioning bins
	References
	Further Reading
6 - Dry-milling technology
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Milling processes
		6.2.1 Treatments that change shape and size
			6.2.1.1 Abrasion
			6.2.1.2 Roller milling
		6.2.2 Fractionating
			6.2.2.1 Size
			6.2.2.2 Shape
			6.2.2.3 Specific gravity
			6.2.2.4 Multiple factors
		6.2.3 Changes in temperature and/or moisture content
	6.3 Processes in which the main process is decortication
		6.3.1 Rice milling
			6.3.1.1 Village processing
			6.3.1.2 Industrial processing
				Dehulling
				Whitening
				Polishing
				Grading of milled rice products
				Conveying stocks
				Removing nonconforming grains
				Rice flour
		6.3.2 Sorghum and millet milling
			6.3.2.1 Traditional methods
			6.3.2.2 Industrial methods
				Sorghum
				Millets
		6.3.3 Barley milling
			6.3.3.1 Processes in barley milling
			6.3.3.2 Barley flour
			6.3.3.3 Other milled barley products
		6.3.4 Oat milling
			6.3.4.1 Processes in oat milling
				Grading
				Shelling or dehulling
				Stabilization
				Cutting
			6.3.4.2 Oat bran and oat flours
			6.3.4.3 White groats
			6.3.4.4 Oat hulls
		6.3.5 Buckwheat milling
		6.3.6 Quinoa milling
		6.3.7 Grain amaranth milling
	6.4 Dry milling in which the main process is roller milling
		6.4.1 Developments in the history of roller milling
		6.4.2 Modern disc mills
		6.4.3 Modern roller milling
		6.4.4 Roller mill equipment
			6.4.4.1 Roll stands
			6.4.4.2 Decortication
		6.4.5 Classifying during the milling process
			6.4.5.1 Sieve covers
			6.4.5.2 Purifiers
			6.4.5.3 Flake disrupters
			6.4.5.4 Bran finishing
		6.4.6 Milling of common (bread) wheat
		6.4.7 Explanation of terms
			6.4.7.1 Stocks and materials
			6.4.7.2 Separation by size
		6.4.8 Roller-milling operations
			6.4.8.1 Break grinding
				Sizing system
				Starch damage
			6.4.8.2 Reduction system
		6.4.9 Flours
		6.4.10 Changes to the milling system
		6.4.11 Flour extraction
			6.4.11.1 Purity
		6.4.12 Wholemeal
		6.4.13 Brown flours
		6.4.14 Milling by-products
			6.4.14.1 Germ recovery
		6.4.15 Mill capacity
			6.4.15.1 Grinding and sieving surface
		6.4.16 Automation
		6.4.17 Quality monitoring during processing
		6.4.18 Energy used in flour production
		6.4.19 Structure of the milling industry in different parts of the world
		6.4.20 Heat treatment of wheat
		6.4.21 Fine grinding and air classification
		6.4.22 Milling of spelt wheat
		6.4.23 Milling of semolina from durum wheat
			6.4.23.1 The milling process
				Grinding
				Purifying
				Specific machine allocation
				Semolina particle size
				Milling extraction rate
				Rye milling
		6.4.24 Triticale milling
		6.4.25 Dry milling of maize (corn)
			6.4.25.1 The tempering-degerming system
			6.4.25.2 Drying, cooling and grading
			6.4.25.3 Milling
				Milling for grits production
				Milling for flour production
			6.4.25.4 Composition of products
			6.4.25.5 Uses for dry-milled maize products
			6.4.25.6 Impact milling for grits production
			6.4.25.7 Oil extraction from germ
	References
	Further reading
7 - Flour treatments, applications, quality, storage and transport
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Flour grades
	7.2 Treatments of wheat flour
		7.2.1 Bleaching
			7.2.1.1 Nitrogen peroxide
			7.2.1.2 Chlorine
			7.2.1.3 Nitrogen trichloride
			7.2.1.4 Chlorine dioxide
			7.2.1.5 Benzoyl peroxide
			7.2.1.6 Acetone peroxide
			7.2.1.7 Flour blending for bleaching treatment
	7.3 Flours for various purposes
		7.3.1 Bread flour
			7.3.1.1 Maturing and improving agents
			7.3.1.2 Redox improvers
			7.3.1.3 Blending for improver treatment
			7.3.1.4 Emulsifiers and stabilizers
		7.3.2 Biscuit (cookie, cracker) flour
			7.3.2.1 Emulsifiers
		7.3.3 Flours for confectionery products
			7.3.3.1 Cake flour
			7.3.3.2 High-ratio flour
			7.3.3.3 Emulsifiers in cakes
			7.3.3.4 Flour for cake premixes
			7.3.3.5 Flour for fermented goods
			7.3.3.6 Flour for pastry
		7.3.4 Flour from steamed wheat
		7.3.5 Quellmehl
		7.3.6 Flour for sausage rusk
		7.3.7 Batter flour
		7.3.8 Household flour
			7.3.8.1 Self-raising flour
			7.3.8.2 Instantized or agglomerated flour
		7.3.9 Flour for export
		7.3.10 Flours from cereals other than wheat
			7.3.10.1 Rye flour
			7.3.10.2 Triticale flour
			7.3.10.3 Barley flour
			7.3.10.4 Oat flour
			7.3.10.5 Rice flour
			7.3.10.6 Maize flour
			7.3.10.7 Sorghum and millet flours
			7.3.10.8 Composite flours
	7.4 Quality control and flour testing
		7.4.1 Parameters dependent on the nature of the grains milled
			7.4.1.1 Protein content
			7.4.1.2 Sedimentation tests
			7.4.1.3 Enzyme tests
			7.4.1.4 Heat-damage test for gluten
			7.4.1.5 Pigmentation
			7.4.1.6 End-use tests
			7.4.1.7 Machinability test
			7.4.1.8 Extraneous matter test (‘filth test’)
		7.4.2 Tests for characteristics dependent mainly on processing conditions
			7.4.2.1 Ash test, BS4317 part 10
			7.4.2.2 Grade colour
			7.4.2.3 Tristimulus methods
			7.4.2.4 Damaged starch
			7.4.2.5 Particle size analysis
			7.4.2.6 Physical tests on doughs and slurries
			7.4.2.7 True rheological instruments
	7.5 Storage and transport of flour
		7.5.1 Flour blending
		7.5.2 Bulk storage and delivery of flour
	References
	Further reading
8 - Bread-baking technology
	8.1 Principles of baking
		8.1.1 Use of milled-wheat products for bread
		8.1.2 Ingredients
			8.1.2.1 Flour
			8.1.2.2 Leavening
			8.1.2.3 Baking powders
			8.1.2.4 Yeast
			8.1.2.5 Dried yeasts
			8.1.2.6 High-sugar yeast
			8.1.2.7 Frozen-dough yeasts
			8.1.2.8 Salt
			8.1.2.9 Fat
			8.1.2.10 Sugar
			8.1.2.11 Vital gluten
			8.1.2.12 Gluten flour
			8.1.2.13 Fungal amylase
			8.1.2.14 Soya flour
				Improving agents
			8.1.2.15 Physical treatments
		8.1.3 Dough making
			8.1.3.1 Water absorption
			8.1.3.2 Fermentation
			8.1.3.3 Amylase
			8.1.3.4 Gas production and gas retention
		8.1.4 Dough development
			8.1.4.1 Protein
			8.1.4.2 Dough ripening
			8.1.4.3 Dough stickiness
			8.1.4.4 Proteolytic enzymes
			8.1.4.5 Surfactants
			8.1.4. 6Stearoyl-2-lactylates
			8.1.4.7 Colour of bread crust and crumb
			8.1.4.8 Bread aroma and flavour
	8.2 Commercial processes for making white bread
		8.2.1 Bulk (long) fermentation processes
			8.2.1.1 Straight dough system
			8.2.1.2 Sponge and dough system
			8.2.1.3 Plant baking
		8.2.2 Mechanical development processes
			8.2.2.1 Continuous dough making
			8.2.2.2 Chorleywood bread process
		8.2.3 Chemical development process
			8.2.3.1 EU policy regarding additives
		8.2.4 Other rapid methods
			8.2.4.1 No-time continental process
			8.2.4.2 Emergency no-time dough
			8.2.4.3 Aeration (gas-injection) process
			8.2.4.4 Microwave and radio frequency baking
			8.2.4.5 Frozen dough
		8.2.5 Bread cooling
			8.2.5.1 Automation
		8.2.6 Bread moisture content
		8.2.7 Bread weights
		8.2.8 Yield of bread
		8.2.9 Energy consumption in bread making and environmental impacts
	8.3 Other kinds of breads
		8.3.1 Brown and wholemeal breads
		8.3.2 Wheatgerm bread
		8.3.3 Gluten bread: high-protein bread
		8.3.4 High-fibre bread
		8.3.5 Granary bread
		8.3.6 Speciality breads
		8.3.7 Baguettes
	8.4 Bread staling and preservation
		8.4.1 Bread staling
		8.4.2 Rope
		8.4.3 Bread preservation
			8.4.3.1 Packaging
			8.4.3.2 Freezing
	8.5 Use of cereals other than wheat in bread
		8.5.1 Rye
			8.5.1.1 Soft bread
			8.5.1.2 Straight dough process
			8.5.1.3 Sour dough process
			8.5.1.4 Pumpernickel
			8.5.1.5 Crispbread (Knackerbrot)
			8.5.1.6 Flatbreads
		8.5.2 Triticale
		8.5.3 Barley and oats
		8.5.4 Rice
		8.5.5 Maize
		8.5.6 Bread made with composite flours
			8.5.6.1 Distillers grains
			8.5.6.2 Soya bread
		8.5.7 Bread made with gluten substitutes
	8.6 Bread quality
	8.7 Bread machines for home use
	References
	Further reading
9 - Breakfast cereals
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Cooking of cereals
	9.3 Hot cereals
		9.3.1 Porridge from oats
		9.3.2 Ready-cooked porridge
		9.3.3 Specification for oatmeal and oat flakes
		9.3.4 Porridge from other cereals
	9.4 Ready-to-eat cereals
		9.4.1 Processing
		9.4.2 Batch cooking
		9.4.3 Continuous cooking
		9.4.4 Extrusion cookers
	9.5 Flaked products from maize
	9.6 Flaked products from wheat and rice
		9.6.1 Wheat flakes
		9.6.2 Rice flakes
	9.7 Puffed products
		9.7.1 Oven-puffed rice
		9.7.2 Gun-puffed rice
		9.7.3 Puffed wheat
		9.7.4 Continuous puffing
	9.8 Shredded products
	9.9 Granular products
	9.10 Sugar-coated products
	9.11 Keeping quality of breakfast cereals
	9.12 Nutritive value of breakfast cereals
		9.12.1 Proteins and amino acids
		9.12.2 Carbohydrates
		9.12.3 Calorific value
		9.12.4 Enzymes
		9.12.5 Minerals and vitamins
		9.12.6 Oat bran
	9.13 Consumption of breakfast cereals
	References
	Further reading
10 - Extrusion processing of pasta and other products
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Principles of extrusion cooking
	10.3 Pasta
		10.3.1 Traditional (kneading/sheeting) processing
		10.3.2 Extrusion processing
		10.3.3 Drying of pasta
		10.3.4 Processing evolutions
		10.3.5 Degree of cooking during processing
		10.3.6 Quality of pasta
		10.3.7 Cooking value of pasta
		10.3.8 Use of nonwheat materials
		10.3.9 l-ascorbic acid as an additive
		10.3.10 Doughing water temperature
		10.3.11 Glyceryl monostearate as an additive
		10.3.12 Prevention of starch leaching from uncooked pasta
		10.3.13 Microorganism control
		10.3.14 Quick-cooking pasta
		10.3.15 Precooked pasta
		10.3.16 Couscous
		10.3.17 Codes of practice
		10.3.18 Pasta composition
		10.3.19 Pasta consumption
	10.4 Other extrusion-cooked products
		10.4.1 Corn snacks
		10.4.2 Pet foods
		10.4.3 Aquatic feeds
		10.4.4 Texturized vegetable protein
		10.4.5 Flatbreads
		10.4.6 Pellets
		10.4.7 Modified starch
		10.4.8 Brewing adjuncts
		10.4.9 High-dextrose-equivalent syrups
		10.4.10 High alpha-amylase activity flour
		10.4.11 Other uses for extrusion
	10.5 Recent trends
	References
	Further reading
11 - Other food products
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Products made from wheat
		11.2.1 Chapattis
		11.2.2 Other flatbreads
		11.2.3 Tortillas
		11.2.4 Pretzels
		11.2.5 Crackers, biscuits, cookies
	11.3 Products made from maize
		11.3.1 Tortillas
		11.3.2 Nixtamalization and pellagra
		11.3.3 Snack products
		11.3.4 Dry masa flour
		11.3.5 Kenkey
	11.4 Products made from sorghum and the millets
	11.5 Rice substitutes
		11.5.1 Couscous
		11.5.2 Bulgur
		11.5.3 WURLD wheat
		11.5.4 Ricena
	11.6 Parboiled rice
		11.6.1 Conversion
		11.6.2 Consumption
	11.7 Recent trends
	References
	Further reading
12 - Malting, brewing, fermentation, and distilling
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Malting
		12.2.1 Dormancy
		12.2.2 Barley malting operations
		12.2.3 Steeping
		12.2.4 Germination
		12.2.5 Kilning
		12.2.6 Ageing
		12.2.7 Energy consumption and other costs
		12.2.8 Malt production
		12.2.9 By-products of malting
		12.2.10 Nonbrewing uses of malt
		12.2.11 Adjuncts
		12.2.12 Malts from other cereals
	12.3 Brewing
		12.3.1 Beer
		12.3.2 Wort production
		12.3.3 Fermentation
		12.3.4 Saké
	12.4 Distilled spirits
		12.4.1 Traditional malt whisky (Scotch)
		12.4.2 Grain whiskey
		12.4.3 Bourbon whiskey
		12.4.4 Neutral spirits
		12.4.5 Craft spirits
	12.5 Fuel ethanol
	12.6 By-products of brewing and distilling
	References
	Further reading
13 - Feed and industrial uses for cereals
	13.1 Raw materials used for feed and industrial products
	13.2 Animal feed processing and ingredients
		13.2.1 Processing of cereals for animal feeds
			13.2.1.1 Raw ingredient receipt
			13.2.1.2 Raw ingredient distribution
			13.2.1.3 Raw ingredient storage
			13.2.1.4 Steam-rolling and steam-flaking
			13.2.1.5 Batching
			13.2.1.6 Mixing
			13.2.1.7 Grinding
			13.2.1.8 Pelleting
			13.2.1.9 Extrusion
			13.2.1.10 Drying and/or cooling
			13.2.1.11 Popping and micronizing
			13.2.1.12 Final product storage
			13.2.1.13 Load out
			13.2.1.14 Soaking
			13.2.1.15 Reconstitution
			13.2.1.16 Treatment of high-moisture grain
		13.2.2 Maize
			13.2.2.1 Maize cobs
		13.2.3 Barley
		13.2.4 Wheat
		13.2.5 Oats
		13.2.6 Sorghum
		13.2.7 Rye
		13.2.8 Rice
		13.2.9 Millets
	13.3 Production of biochemicals from cereals
	13.4 Other industrial uses for cereals
		13.4.1 Wheat
		13.4.2 Maize and sorghum
			13.4.2.1 Agricultural uses
			13.4.2.2 Industrial uses
		13.4.3 Maize starch
		13.4.4 Rye
		13.4.5 Oats
		13.4.6 Rice and oat hulls
		13.4.7 Bioplastics
	References
	Further Reading
14 - Wet milling: separating starch, gluten (protein) and fibre
	14.1 Purpose of wet milling
	14.2 Wheat
		14.2.1 Vital wheat gluten
			14.2.1.1 Vital gluten in bread
	14.3 Maize
		14.3.1 Operations
			14.3.1.1 Storage and drying
			14.3.1.2 Steeping
			14.3.1.3 Degerming
			14.3.1.4 Germ separation
			14.3.1.5 Milling
			14.3.1.6 Separation of starch from protein
		14.3.2 Wet milling in the United States
		14.3.3 Products of wet milling
		14.3.4 Uses for wet-milled maize products
			14.3.4.1 Modified starches
			14.3.4.2 Dextrose and HFCS
	14.4 Sorghum
		14.4.1 Steeping
		14.4.2 Degerming
		14.4.3 Dewatering
		14.4.4 Starch/protein separation
		14.4.5 Sorghum ‘gluten’
	14.5 Millet
	14.6 Rice
		14.6.1 Solvent extraction milling
	References
	Further reading
15 - Conclusions
	References
Abbreviations, units, equivalents
	Abbreviations
	Units
	Equivalents
		Length
		Area
		Mass
		Mass per unit area
		Volume
		Density
		Energy/work
		Power
		Pressure
		Temperature
		Concentration
		Dressing surface
		Roller surface
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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