Teaching Coding in K-12 Schools: Research and Application

Foreword
Contents
About the Editors and Contributors
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction: The Need for Programming and Computational Thinking from Early Childhood Education Through to Secondary Schooling
	1.1 Early Childhood Education
	1.2 Elementary/Primary School
	1.3 High/Secondary School
	1.4 Final Words from the Editors
	Reference
Part I: Early Childhood Education
	Chapter 2: Children (Aged 3–5 Years) Learning Mathematics Through Programming, Thinking and Doing, or Just Doing?
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Research on Young Children and Programming
		2.3 The Role of the Preschool Teacher
		2.4 Project: Learning Mathematics Through Programming
			2.4.1 Designing the Activities
		2.5 Thinking and Doing, or Just Doing?
		2.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Teaching Coding in Kindergarten: Supporting Students’ Activity with Robot Coding Toys
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Local Vignette of Coding in Kindergarten
			3.2.1 Tasks for Introducing a Robot Coding Toy: Learning Codes and Sequencing Codes
			3.2.2 Debugging a Buggy Program: What Happened?
		3.3 Key Findings
			3.3.1 Design Elements for Robot Coding Toy Tasks
				3.3.1.1 Introductory Tasks Focused on Context Proficiencies
				3.3.1.2 Tasks for CT Strategies
				3.3.1.3 Tasks for Play
			3.3.2 Design Elements for Robot Coding Toy Instructional Practices
			3.3.3 Design Elements for Leveraging or Supplementing the Robot Coding Toy’s Features
		3.4 Evidence of Mastery
		3.5 Facilitating Resources
		References
	Chapter 4: Programming Environments for the Development of Computational Thinking in Preschool Education: A Systematic Literature Review
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Methodology
			4.2.1 Databases
			4.2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
			4.2.3 Systematic Review Process
			4.2.4 Data Analyses
		4.3 Educational Programming Environments for Preschoolers
			4.3.1 Logo Family Programming Environments
				4.3.1.1 Roamers
				4.3.1.2 Software Roamers
			4.3.2 Visual Programming Environments
			4.3.3 Commercial Programming Learning Environments for Entertainment Purposes
			4.3.4 Physical Computing Environments
				4.3.4.1 Educational Robotics Environments
			4.3.5 Miscellaneous Unplugged Applications and Environments
		4.4 Discussion
		References
Part II: Elementary/Primary School
	Chapter 5: Developing Computational Fluency via Multimedia Stories
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 Becoming Fluent in a Language: The Role of Reading
		5.2 Local School Context
			5.2.1 The Longitudinal Research Project
		5.3 The Role of Structured Activities in Developing Computational Fluency
			5.3.1 The “Pass-It-On” Activity
		5.4 Collected Data and Key Findings
		5.5 Conclusions
		5.6 Facilitating Diagram
		5.7 Links
		References
	Chapter 6: Scaffolding Engagement with Educational Technologies to Develop Computational Thinking in Year 1 Girls
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Background
			6.2.1 Coding and Young Children
			6.2.2 Coding in the Australian School Context
		6.3 Local Research Vignette
		6.4 How This Was Applied in the Classroom
			6.4.1 Micro:Bit
			6.4.2 Makey Makey
			6.4.3 Ozobots
			6.4.4 Minecraft Education Edition
		6.5 Key Findings and Discussion
			6.5.1 How Was the Development of Computational Thinking Supported?
			6.5.2 Embracing Connectivism as a Component of Computational Thinking
			6.5.3 Wider Considerations for Success
			6.5.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Enhancing Computational Thinking Through App Design in Primary Schools
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Literature Review
		7.3 Vignettes
			7.3.1 Vignette 1
			7.3.2 Vignette 2
		7.4 Reflection on the Example Projects
			7.4.1 Problem Formulation
				7.4.1.1 Computational Concepts
				7.4.1.2 Computational Practices
				7.4.1.3 Computational Perspectives
			7.4.2 Solution Expression
				7.4.2.1 Computational Concepts
				7.4.2.2 Computational Practices
				7.4.2.3 Computational Perspectives
			7.4.3 Execution and Evaluation
				7.4.3.1 Computational Concepts
				7.4.3.2 Computational Practices
				7.4.3.3 Computational Perspectives
		7.5 Facilitating Diagram and Supporting Resources
		7.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Program, Learn and Play: A Course of Extracurricular Activities in Scratch Programming for Students in Grades 3–6
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Results and Discussion
			8.2.1 The Extracurricular Activity Course Objectives and Content
		8.3 Domain-Specific Results of Mastering Module 1
		8.4 Domain-Specific Results of Mastering Module 2
		8.5 Domain-Specific Results of Mastering Module 3
		8.6 Domain-Specific Results of Mastering Module 4
		8.7 Professional Development of Teaching Staff
		8.8 Methods of Conducting Extracurricular Activities with Schoolchildren
		8.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Integrating Programming in Other Subjects at Primary Level: Tool, Glue or Ideation
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Programming in the Finnish Curriculum
			9.2.1 Programming and Digital Competence
			9.2.2 New Literacies Program
		9.3 Reasons for Integration
		9.4 Integrated Programming in Grades 1–6
			9.4.1 Programming as a Tool
			9.4.2 Programming as Glue
			9.4.3 Programming as Ideation
		9.5 Implementation Challenges
		9.6 Final Words
		References
	Chapter 10: Introducing Programming Concepts Through the Bebras Tasks in the Primary Education
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 The Overview of Research Conducted on the Bebras Tasks for Primary Students in Years 2019–2021
		10.3 Programming Concepts in Short Bebras Tasks for Primary School
		10.4 Examples of the Bebras Tasks Based on Programming Concepts
		10.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 11: Supporting Primary Students with Disabilities and Neurological Differences in Developing Digital Thinking Skills Through an Inclusive Game-Making Club
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 A Brief Synthesis of the Literature on Game-Making Clubs
			11.2.1 Supporting All Learners in Game Making
			11.2.2 Game Making as Acts of Creativity and Self-Expression
			11.2.3 Digital Thinking in the Australian Curriculum
		11.3 Breaking Down Barriers Between Special and Mainstream Education: A Local Research Vignette
		11.4 Key Findings and Implications for Schools
			11.4.1 Managing Expectations When Setting Coding Goals
			11.4.2 Supporting Challenges with Comprehension and Executive Function in Design Thinking
			11.4.3 Systems Thinking for Game Design
			11.4.4 Using Computational Thinking to Program Counters
			11.4.5 Collaborating with Other Creators
		11.5 Evidence for Assessing Mastery of Assessment
		11.6 Conclusions
		11.7 Resources
		References
	Chapter 12: Game Making and Coding Fluency in a Primary Computing Context
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Context
		12.3 Game Making, Project-Based Learning and Inclusion
		12.4 An Overview of Game Coding Tools
		12.5 Research Vignette: Evolution of Design
		12.6 Overview of the 3 M Game-Making Learning Design
		12.7 Missions
		12.8 Maps
		12.9 Motivational Methods
		12.10 Summary of 3 M Game-Making Model and Supporting Resources
			12.10.1 Supporting Resource 1: Phaser and Glitch.com
			12.10.2 Supporting Resource 2: 3 M and MakeCode Arcade
			12.10.3 Supporting Resource 3: Other MakeCode Arcade Tutorials
		12.11 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Secondary/High School
	Chapter 13: The Problem with Programming: An Overview
		13.1 Introduction
			13.1.1 Computational Thinking
			13.1.2 Programming
		13.2 Method
		13.3 Results
			13.3.1 Difficulties in Learning to Program
			13.3.2 Thinking Skills
			13.3.3 Programming Tools
		13.4 Discussion
			13.4.1 Limitations of the Study
		13.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Expanding Teacher Capacity and Student Engagement in Digital Literacies in the Primary Classroom: An Informal Explorative Reflection
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 The Case
		14.2 Literature Review
			14.2.1 An Australian Context
			14.2.2 Digital Literacies Through Computational Thinking
			14.2.3 Approaches to Learning
			14.2.4 Professional Learning
				14.2.4.1 Summary
		14.3 Local Research Vignette
			14.3.1 Curriculum Integration
			14.3.2 Teacher Capacity
		14.4 An Exploration of Teaching Activities
			14.4.1 The Use of Blue-Bot in Year 1
				14.4.1.1 Addressing the ICT Capabilities
			14.4.2 Makey Makeys and Scratch in Year 4
				14.4.2.1 Addressing the ICT Capabilities
		14.5 Teacher Feedback and Recommendations
		14.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 15: Why and How to Teach Physical Computing: Research and Practice in Computer Science Education at Secondary Schools
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Computer Science Education in Switzerland
		15.3 Physical Computing
			15.3.1 Interaction Design Perspective on Physical Computing
				15.3.1.1 Interactive Objects and Installations
				15.3.1.2 Focus on Ideas and Intended Interaction
				15.3.1.3 Tinkering and Prototyping
				15.3.1.4 Project Description and Specification
			15.3.2 Constructionist and Creative Learning with Physical Computing
			15.3.3 Physical Computing in Schools
			15.3.4 Implications for Computer Science Teaching
		15.4 Tools for Constructionist Learning with Physical Computing
			15.4.1 Hardware Decision: BBC micro:bit, Arduino or Raspberry Pi?
				15.4.1.1 Microcontroller Boards
				15.4.1.2 Mini Computers
			15.4.2 Programming Environments
			15.4.3 Art and Craft Supplies
		15.5 A Triangle of Physical Computing
		15.6 From Science to Practice
			15.6.1 Research Framework: Educational Reconstruction for CS Education
			15.6.2 Science Content: Key Concepts in Hardware/Software Co-design
			15.6.3 Design Principles for Physical Computing Teaching
			15.6.4 Exemplary Lesson Series
				15.6.4.1 My Interactive Garden
				15.6.4.2 LEGO Smart City
		15.7 Summary and Conclusion
		15.8 Supporting Resources
		References
	Chapter 16: Coding Across the Curriculum: Challenges for Non-specialist Teachers
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Project Description and Participants
		16.3 Methods
		16.4 Results
			16.4.1 The Primary School
				16.4.1.1 Extrinsic Challenges
					16.4.1.1.1 Practicality of Implementation
				16.4.1.2 Intrinsic Challenges
					16.4.1.2.1 Teacher’s Ownership of the Intended Curriculum
					16.4.1.2.2 Teacher’s Knowledge and Approaches
				16.4.1.3 Impact on Student Narratives
			16.4.2 The Secondary School
				16.4.2.1 Extrinsic Challenges
					16.4.2.1.1 Practicality of Implementation
					16.4.2.1.2 Student Assessment
					16.4.2.1.3 Time Management
				16.4.2.2 Intrinsic Challenges
					16.4.2.2.1 Teachers’ Knowledge and Understanding
				16.4.2.3 Impact on Student Narratives
		16.5 Discussion
			16.5.1 Teaching Coding as an Interdisciplinary Activity
			16.5.2 The Impact of the Learning Environment on Outcomes
		16.6 Limitations
		16.7 Conclusion
		16.8 Supporting Resources
		References
	Chapter 17: Teaching High School Students Artificial Intelligence by Programming Chatbots
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Artificial Intelligence and Chatbots
			17.2.1 Chatbots: Technology and Architecture
		17.3 Teaching Basic Programming Concepts by Creating a Chatbot
			17.3.1 Programming: Understanding the Learning Trajectories
			17.3.2 Programming: A Pedagogical Perspective
		17.4 Programming a Chatbot
			17.4.1 Conversation Flow Level 1: Friendly Greetings
			17.4.2 Conversation Flow Level 2: Decision-Making
			17.4.3 Conversation Flow Level 3: Repetitive Tasks
		17.5 Supporting Resources
		17.6 Conclusion and Future Research Directions
		References
	Chapter 18: Teaching Coding and Computational Thinking with Model Train Robotics: Social Factors That Motivate Students to Learn Programming
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Implementing Computational Thinking: Teaching Coding Through Model Train Programming
		18.3 Materials and Methods
		18.4 Student Tasks
		18.5 Research Outcomes: Predictors of Student Success
		18.6 Motivation by Gender
		18.7 Role of the Motivational Factors in Computational Practices
		18.8 Future Prospects for Action Research
		18.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19: Initial Steps in Teaching Python at Lower Secondary School Using the Platform Codeboard.io
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Literature Review
			19.2.1 Python in Lower Secondary Schools in the Czech Republic
			19.2.2 Review of Existing Studies on Implementing Python in Lower Secondary Schools
		19.3 Findings
			19.3.1 Teaching Design for Programming in Python
			19.3.2 Key Findings from the Research Study
		19.4 Evidence for Assessing Mastery of Achievement
		19.5 Supporting Resources
		Appendices
			Appendix 19.1: Activities in Python in Lessons L1–L5 (Activity #2)
			Appendix 19.2: Questionnaire “Show What You Have Learned” (Activity #2)
			Appendix 19.3: A Final Questionnaire (at the End of Activity #3)
		References
	Chapter 20: Creating Mobile Applications with App Inventor Adopting Computational Action
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Research Methodology
		20.3 Teaching Computing Through the Development of Mobile Applications
		20.4 Application of the Course
		20.5 Evaluation of the Course
			20.5.1 Does the Course Increase Students’ Competencies?
			20.5.2 Does the Pedagogical Strategy of the Course Promote an Enjoyable Experience That Facilitates Learning?
		20.6 Key Findings
		20.7 Facilitating Diagram and Links
		References
	Chapter 21: Learning Computational Thinking in Secondary School (Year 8) in Germany in International Comparison: Results from ICILS 2018
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Theory and Research on Teaching and Learning Computational Thinking in Germany in International Comparison
		21.3 School Learning of Computational Thinking in Germany in International Comparison
		21.4 Computational Thinking and Problem-Solving in Germany
		21.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Computational Thinking in Pre-vocational Education: A Focus on Coding Unplugged
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Context
		22.3 Two Cases: Experiences and Key Findings
		22.4 Rubric for Assessing CT Skills
		22.5 Lessons Learned
		References
	Chapter 23: A Case of Girls Building Robots or Robots Building the Girls?
		23.1 Introduction
			23.1.1 Perceptions of STEM Through the Lens of All-Girl Secondary Schools
			23.1.2 Technologies Curriculum in Secondary Schools
			23.1.3 Gender Disparity in Computing
		23.2 Melbourne RoboCats Initiative
			23.2.1 Context
			23.2.2 The FIRST® Robotics Competition
			23.2.3 About the RoboCats
			23.2.4 Why the RoboCats?
		23.3 The Basics of an FRC Robot
			23.3.1 Software Development: LabVIEW Versus Java
			23.3.2 Robot Controller
			23.3.3 Robot Control: Programming Autonomous and Teleoperated Modes
		23.4 Discussion
			23.4.1 Supporting Resources
		23.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 24: Applying Hybrid Programming in High Schools: An Empirical Study Analysing Teachers’ Opinions
		24.1 Introduction: From Visual to Textual Programming
		24.2 Hybrid Programming: Literature Synthesis and Research Questions Used
		24.3 Empirical Study
			24.3.1 Method
			24.3.2 Results and Discussion
				24.3.2.1 First Research Question
				24.3.2.2 Second Research Question
		24.4 Closing Remarks
		References
	Chapter 25: Hybrid VR Programming: Extending the Notional Machine for C++
		25.1 Vocational Education in Germany and Relevance of VR
		25.2 Linking Up to Competence Research
		25.3 Unreal Engine
			25.3.1 Choice of the Engine
			25.3.2 C++ Programming Language
			25.3.3 Role of the Unreal Engine
			25.3.4 Unreal Engine as a Hybrid Programming Environment
		25.4 Notional Machines and Didactical Guidelines for Hybrid Programming Using Blueprints
			25.4.1 Notional Machines
			25.4.2 A Notional Machine for C++
			25.4.3 Extending the Notional Machine for C++
			25.4.4 Didactical Guidelines for Hybrid Programming Using Blueprints
				25.4.4.1 Starting with Blueprint Functions
				25.4.4.2 Use-Modify-Create and PRIMM
				25.4.4.3 Events
				25.4.4.4 Modularity with Blueprints: Control Flow and Code Tracing
		25.5 Our First Curriculum Intervention
			25.5.1 Learning Objectives
			25.5.2 Technical Requirements
			25.5.3 General Didactical Decisions and Methodological Considerations
			25.5.4 Project Phases
				25.5.4.1 Orientation
				25.5.4.2 Planning
				25.5.4.3 Implementation
				25.5.4.4 Evaluation
				25.5.4.5 Presentation
			25.5.5 Next Steps
		25.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 26: Cognitive Influences on Learning Programming
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Cognitive Load
		26.3 Intrinsic Cognitive Load
		26.4 Germane Cognitive Load
		26.5 Extraneous Cognitive Load
		26.6 Cognitive Fit
		26.7 Cognitive Walkthroughs
		26.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 27: Where Next for Coding in Schools?
		27.1 The Story So Far
		27.2 Personal Perspective
		27.3 A General Framework for Learning Programming
		27.4 Machine Learning in School Education
		27.5 The Basics of Quantum Computing
		27.6 Quantum Computing in School Education
		27.7 Discussion and Conclusion
		References
Index