Systems Research for Behavioral Science: A Sourcebook

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Foreword
	Note
General Introduction
PART I: General Systems Research: Overview
	1. General Systems Theory—The Skeleton of Science
	2. General System Theory—A Critical Review
		1. The Rise of Interdisciplinary Theories
		2. Methods of General Systems Research
		3. Homeostasis and Open Systems
		4. Criticism of General System Theory
		5. Advances of General System Theory
			OPEN SYSTEMS
			GROWTH-IN-TIME
			RELATIVE GROWTH
			COMPETITION AND RELATED PHENOMENA
			SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
			PERSONALITY THEORY
				Theoretical History
	3. Cybernetics in History
PART II: Parts, Wholes, and Levels of Integration
	4. Parts and Wholes in Physics
		Notes
	5. The Problem of Systemic Organization in Theoretical Biology
		I. Introduction
		II. General System Theory in Biology
		III. The Principle of System Organization and Some Controversial Questions of Evolutionary Biology
		IV. Summary
		Notes
	6. Units and Concepts of Biology
		Entities
		Levels
		Becoming; History
		Behaving; Regulation
		Being; Organization
		Conclusion
		Notes
	7. Levels of Integration in Biological and Social Systems
PART III: Systems, Organization, and the Logic of Relations
	8. Thoughts on Organization Theory
	9. Certain Peculiarities of Organisms as a “System” from the Point of View of Physics, Cybernetics, and Biology
		Which Organisms Are Involved?
		The Relationships between Different Degrees of Organizational Development of Systems
	10. Definition of System
		1. Introduction
		2. Definition of “System”
			2.1 OBJECTS
			2.2 ATTRIBUTES
			2.3 RELATIONSHIPS
		3. Examples of Physical Systems
		4. Examples of Abstract or Conceptual Systems
		5. Abstract Systems as Models
		6. Definition of Environment
		7. Systems and Their Environments
		8. Subsystems
		9, Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Views of Systematic Behavior
		10. Some Macroscopic Properties of Systems
		11. Natural and Man-Made Systems
			11. 1 NATURAL SYSTEMS
			11.2 MAN-MADE SYSTEMS
			11.3 SYSTEMS WITH RANDOMNESS
		12. Isomorphism
		13. The State-Determined System
			1 3 .1 DEFINITION OF STATE-DETERMINED SYSTEM
			13.2 PROPERTIES OF STATE-DETERMINED SYSTEMS
		14. Summary and Additional Remarks
	11 .A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity
		Consequences
	12. The General and Logical Theory of Automata
		Preliminary Considerations
		The Future Logical Theory of Automata
		Principles of Digitalization
		Formal Neural Networks
		The Concept of Complication; Self-Reproduction
	13. Principles of the Se lf Organizing System
		What is \"Organization\"?
		Whole and Parts
		Machines in General
		“Good” Organization
		Self-Organizing Systems
		The Spontaneous Generation of Organization
		Competition
		Requisite Variety
		The Future
		Summary
PART IV: Information, Communication, and Meaning
	14. What Is Information Measurement?
		Basic Concepts
		The Transmission Situation
		The Sequential Situation
	15. Variety, Constraint, and the Law of Requisite Variety
		Constraint
		Importance of Constraint
		Requisite Variety
		The Law of Requisite Variety
	16. The Promise and Pitfalls of Information Theorv
		Notes
	A. ENTROPY AND LIFE
		17. Order, Disorder, and Entropy
			A Remarkable General Conclusion from the Model
			Order Based on Order
			Living Matter Evades the Decay to Equilibrium
			It Feeds on \'Negative Entropy\'
			What is Entropy ?
			The Statistical Meaning of Entropy
			Organization Maintained by Extracting \'Order\' from the Environment
			Notes
		18. Life, Thermodynamics, and Cybernetics
			The Attitude of the Scientist
			The Second Principle of Thermodynamics, Its Successes and Its Shortcomings
			If Nature Could Run Backward
			Life and Its Relations with the Second Principle
			Living Organisms and Dead Structures
			Entropy and Intelligence
			Notes
		19. Communication, Entropy, and Life
			The Second Law of Thermodynamics Is Obeyed
			Information Storage and Equilibrium
			Catalysis
			Conclusion
		20. Thermodynamics and Information Theory
			Similarity between Information and Negentropy
			How to Define Information ?
			Processes That May Increase Information
			Computation and the Exact Role of Computers
			Notes
		21. The Entropy Concept and Psychic Function
		22. From Stimulus to Symbol: The Economy of Biological Computation
			Environment: An Analysis
			Internal Representation of Environment: A Physiology
			Symbolization: A Synthesis
	B. BEHAVIOR AND MEANING
		23. The Application of Information Theory in Behavioral Studies
			Introduction
			The Application of Information Theory in Behavioral Studies
		24. A Behavioristic Analysis of Perception and Language as Cognitive Phenomena
			Projection
			Integration
			Representation
			Perception and Meaning
			Summary
		25. The Informational Analysis of Questions and Commands
			Introduction
			The Impact of Information on the Organism
			Perception and Communication
			Questions
			The Meaning of a Question
			Commands
			Quantitative Aspects
			Conclusions
			Notes
		26. Towards a Behavioral Theory of Communication
			Introduction
			An Apology
			Some Fundamental Concepts
				1 . A PURPOSEFUL STATE
				2. COURSES OF ACTION
				3. EFFICIENCY
				4. VALUE
				5. MESSAGE
			Communication
				1. THE VALUE OF A COMMUNICATION
				2. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
					2.1 INFORMATION\'
					2.2 INSTRUCTION\'
					2.3 MOTIVATION
			Conclusion
			Notes
PART V. Cybernetics: Purpose, Self-Regulation, and Self-Direction
	A. CYBERNETICS AND PURPOSE
		27. Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology
		28. Comments on a Mechanistic Conception of Purposefulness
			Notes
		29. Purposeful and Non-Pur poseful Behavior
		30. Purposeful and Non-Purposeful Behavior: A Rejoinder
			Some Difficulties
			An Alternative Conception
			Some Misunderstandings
			Notes
		31. Purposive Behavior and Cybernetics
			Notes
		32. Purpose and Learning Theory
			Two Frames of Reference
			Reformulations of “Teleology”
			Hullian Theory and “Purpose”
			Tolmanian Theory and “Purpose”
	B. HOMEOSTASIS AND EVOLUTION
		33. Self-Regulation of the Body
			I
			II
			III
		34. On the Parallel between Learning and Evolution
			Introduction
			The Concept of Complexity
			Complexity in Biological Systems
			Evolution by Variation and Selection
			Systems with the Property of Evolution
			Does Learning Involve an Increase in Complexity?
			Complexity in Time
			The Mechanism of Learning in the Central Nervous System
			The Types of Learning
			Conditioned Reflex Type I
			Latent Learning
			Habituation
			Conditioned Reflex Type II and Trial-and-Error Learning
			Insight Learning
			Imprinting
			Conclusion: The Location of Memory
			Summary
			Notes
		35. Purpose, Adaptation, and “Directive Correlation”
			The Key Position of the Concept of Adaptation
			The Concept o f Appropriateness
			Transition to the Concept of Adaptation
			The Coenetic Variable
			Directive Correlation
			The Focal Condition
			Degrees of  Adaptation
			The Asymmetry of  Adaptation
			The Independence of the Focal Condition and the Coenetic Variable
			Directive Correlation and the Teleological Fallacy
			Notes
		36. Regulation and Control
			Survival
			Regulation and Variety
			Control
			Some Variations
		37. The Second Cybernetics: Deviation-Amplifying Mutual Causal Processes
PART VI. Self-Regulation and Self-Direction in Psychological Systems
	38. Feedback Theory and the Reflex Arc Concept
		Conclusion
		Notes
	39. Plasticity in Human Sensorimotor Control
		Studies of Disordered Motor-Sensory Feedback
		Motor-Sensory Feedback
		Motor-Sensory Correlation
		Decorrelated Feedback
		Visual-Motor Disarrangement
		Auditory-Motor Disarrangement
		Discussion
		Summary
		Notes
	40. A Cybernetic Approach to Motivation
		Alternative Approaches to Motivation
		Behavior as a Succession of Adjustments
		Decision Making and Voluntary Conduct
		Utility of the Cybernetic Model
	41. Ego Psychology, Cybernetics, and Learning Theory
		I. The Passing of “Habit” and the Rediscovery of “Consciousness”
		II. Cybernetics as the Science of Communication and Control
		Ill. Psychology of the Ego and Superego
		Notes
	42. The Open System in Personality Theory
		A Psycholinguistic Trifle
		The Concept of System
			TRANSATLANTIC PERSPECTIVE
		General Systems Theory
		Some Examples
		Final Word
		Notes
	43. Note on Self-Regulating Systems and Stress
		Detection
		Identification
		Response Availability
	44. The Concept of Stress in Relation to the Disorganization of Human Behaviour
	45. Towards an Information-Flow Model o f Human Behaviour
		I. Introductory
		II. Goal-guided Activity
		III. Organizing the Trial Process
		IV. A Statistical Self-Organizing System
		V. The Control of Dimensionality
		VI. The Representation of the Field of Activity
		V II. Conclusion
		Notes
	46. Plans and the Structure of Behaviour
		The Unit of  Analysis
		Values, Intentions, and the Execution of Plans
		Notes
PART VII. Self-Regulation and Self-Direction in Sociocultural Systems
	47. Toward a Cybernetic Model of Man and Society
		The Classical Model of Mechanism
		The Classical Concept of Organism
		Selfmodifying Networks as Generalized Models of Organization in Machines, Minds, and Societies
		The Feedback Concept
		Learning and Purpose
		Complex Networks: Messages and Symbols
		Switchboards and Values
		Consciousness
		Autonomy, Integrity, and Freedom
		Freedom and Coherence in Societies
		Notes
	A. SOCIAL CONTROL: INTERNAL VARIETY AND CONSTRAINTS
		48. Social Control and Self Regulation
			I
			II
			III
			IV
			V
			VI
			VII
			Notes
		49. Conformity-Deviation and the Social Control Concept
			I
			II
			III
			Notes
		50. Variety and Constraint in Cultural Adaptation
			The Patri-Local Band
			Baja California
			Conclusions
		51. A Behavioural Theory of Drug Taking
			Amplification of Deviation
			The Image of Drugs
			The Influence of Cultures
			National Differences
			The Basic Problem
	B. SOCIAL CONTROL: ORGANIZATIONAL GOAL SEEKING
		52. A Systems Analysis o f Political Life
			Political Life as an Open and Adaptive System
			Equilibrium Analysis and Its Shortcomings
			Minimal Concepts for a Systems Analysis
			The Linkage Variables between Systems
			Demands and Supports as Input Indicators
			Outputs and Feedback
			A Flow Model of the Political System
		53. The Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organizations
			Notes
		54. Feedback Problems of Social Diagnosis and Action
		55. Control as an Organizational Process
		56. The Cybernetics of Competition: A Biologist\'s View of Society
			The Competitive Exclusion Principle
			Have We Proved Too Much ?
			The Cybernetics of Monopoly
			The Limits of Laissez Faire
			The Idea of a System
			The Feasibility of Human Wishes
			Is Planning Possible ?
		57. Is Adaptability Enough ?
			The regulating process
			Control by error
			Control by rule and purpose
			Application of the model
			Conflict in the system
			Dimensions of change
			Rapid industrialisation
			Disturbance in the system
			Political, social, and economic regulators
			Controlling rate of change
			Value judgements
			Conclusions
	C. DECISION PROCESSES AND GROUP STRUCTURE
		58. Critiques of Game Theory
			The Conceptual Achievement of Game Theory
			The Scope of Game Theory
			Implications of Recent Developments
			Conclusions
			Notes
		59. Society as a Complex Adaptive System
			Complex Adaptive Systems: A Paradigm
			The Sociocultural Adaptive System
			Structure, Process, and Decision Theory
			Further Examples
			Conclusion
			Notes
Selected References
Index