Sustainable Seaweed Technologies: Cultivation, Biorefinery, and Applications

Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Opportunities for seaweed biorefinery
	Seaweed and the blue biorefinery
	Seaweed cultivation and harvesting from natural stocks
	Climate and environmental benefits of seaweed cultivation
	Seaweed biorefining, technologies, and products
	Biocatalytic refining of seaweed carbohydrates
	The mature seaweed biorefinery
	Seaweed as a basis for tasty and health-promoting food ingredients
	Seaweed as a basis for health-promoting feed ingredients
	Seaweed biorefinery value chains for skin care
	Seaweed biorefinery value chains, valorizing nonedible biomass
	Seaweed biorefinery, polymer-based value chains
		Polysaccharides from brown, red, and green seaweed
		Proteins from seaweeds
	New opportunities from mixed feedstocks and integrated processing
	Geographical hot spots for valorizing seaweed biomass
	Future global perspectives for seaweed biorefinery
	References
	Further reading
Seaweed components, properties, and applications
	Introduction
	Nutritional composition of seaweed
		Carbohydrates
		Proteins
		Lipids and fatty acids
		Minerals and vitamins
	Bioactive properties of seaweeds
		Modulation and prevention of metabolic syndrome
		Antimicrobial, antifungal, and antagonistic properties
		Immunomodulatory and antiinflammatory properties
		Anticancer and antitumor properties
		Potential prebiotics and promotion of gut health
	Physicochemical properties and strength of seaweed-derived phycocolloids
	Food and nonfood application of seaweeds
		Seaweed as food products and functional food ingredients
		Conversion of seaweed into bioenergy and biofuels
		Livestock feed ingredients and agrichemicals
		Bioremediation and contaminant absorber
		Other applications
	Challenges and conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Seaweed resources, collection, and cultivation with respect to sustainability
	Seaweed resource overview
	Sustainable socioeconomic benefits for coastal communities
	Sustainable harvesting and management of wild resources
	Effect of global change on seaweed resources and sustainability
	Ecosystem services
		Wild stocks
		Aquaculture
	Sustainable biofuel options
	Sustainable aquaculture of seaweeds
	Conclusion and outlook
	References
	Further reading
Time for applications of biostimulants in phyconomy: Seaweed Extracts for Enhanced Cultivation of Seaweeds (SEECS)
	Introduction
	Seaweed extract applications in seaweed cultivation
		Micropropagation
		In vitro effects of temperature on growth
		Cultivation
	Tank cultivation and applications of biostimulants
	Field treatments
		Mitigation of ice-ice, epi-endophytes, and epibionts
		Integrated multitrophic aquaculture and biostimulants
		Effects of biostimulant applications on production of phycocolloids
	Concluding thoughts of the authors
	Disclaimer
	References
Drying of edible seaweeds
	Introduction
	Drying methods
		Solar drying
		Convective air drying
			Modeling of drying kinetics of seaweeds
				Initiation period
				Constant drying rate period
				Falling drying rate period
		Freeze drying
		Vacuum drying
		Microwave drying
	Effect of drying methods on dried seaweeds properties
		Antioxidant activity
		Color
	Main uses of dried seaweeds
		Food ingredient
		Source of hydrocolloids
	Current state and future trends
	References
Storage of seaweed for biofuel production: Ensilage
	Introduction
	Ensiling
	Ensiling algae
		Reducing pH during ensilage of algae
		Energy and dry matter losses in ensiling algae
		Effect of moisture content on ensiling algae
		Effect of size reduction on ensiling algae
		Effect of enzyme and lactic acid bacteria addition on ensiling algae
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Conventional extraction techniques: Solvent extraction
	Introduction
	Distillation
		Principles of distillation
		Applications of steam distillation
	Maceration
		Principles of maceration
		Applications of maceration
	Soxhlet extraction
		Principles of Soxhlet extraction
		Applications of Soxhlet extraction
	Prospects and future trends of conventional technologies
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Emerging extraction techniques: Hydrothermal processing
	Introduction
	Hydrothermal liquefaction
		Advantages of hydrothermal liquefaction
		Disadvantages of hydrothermal liquefaction
	Hydrothermal gasification
		Advantages of hydrothermal gasification
		Disadvantages of hydrothermal gasification
	Hydrothermal carbonization
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Emerging extraction techniques: Microwave-assisted extraction
	Introduction
	Principles, equipment, and advantages of microwave-assisted extraction
		Principles of microwave technology
		Microwave equipment
		Advantages and disadvantages of MAE
	Microwave-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from macroalgae
		MAE of polysaccharides
		MAE of other compounds
	Other uses of microwave technologies
	Future trends in microwave-assisted extraction
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Emerging seaweed extraction techniques: Enzyme-assisted extraction a key step of seaweed biorefinery?
	Introduction
	Description of seaweed cell walls and storage polysaccharides
		In brown seaweeds
		In red seaweeds
		In green seaweeds
	Enzyme-assisted extraction
	Innovative associated processes
		Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and EAE
		Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and EAE
		Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and EAE
	To the biorefinery concept
		Seaweed sourcing
		Bioenergy
		Biorefineries: Toward the ``blue economy´´ concept
	Conclusion
	References
Emerging seaweed extraction techniques: Supercritical fluid extraction
	Introduction
	Macroalgae bioactive compounds
		Polysaccharides
		Proteins
		Lipids
		Antioxidants
	Sub- and supercritical fluids extraction processes
		Supercritical carbon dioxide
		Subcritical water
	Sub- and supercritical fluid extraction of bioactive compounds
	Future perspective and challenge
	Acknowledgments
	References
Emerging seaweed extraction techniques using ionic liquids
	Introduction
	Ionic liquids: Alternative solvents in extraction techniques
	Extraction of biomolecules from seaweed
	Hydrolyses of carbohydrates and biomass dissolution using ILs
	Purification approaches
	Conclusions and critical analysis
	Future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Concentration and purification of seaweed components by chromatography methods
	Characteristics of seaweed
	Therapeutic benefits of seaweeds
	Chromatography
	Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC)
	Dye-ligand affinity chromatography
	Size-exclusion chromatography
	Fast protein liquid chromatography
	High-speed countercurrent chromatography
	Centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC)
	Gas chromatography
	Thin-layer chromatography
	Ion exchange chromatography
	Liquid chromatography
	Hydrophilic interaction chromatography
	Ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)
	Conclusion
	References
Concentration and purification of seaweed extracts using membrane technologies
	Membrane technology
	Membrane characteristics
		Transport characteristics
		Membrane morphology
		Membrane material
	Membrane operation
		Operation mode
		Concentration polarization and fouling
		Influence of operational parameters
	Membrane modules
	Concentration and purification of seaweed extracts by membrane technology
	References
Biofuels production of third generation biorefinery from macroalgal biomass in the Mexican context: An overview
	Introduction
	Algae
		Chemical composition of macroalgae biomass
	Biofuels production from macroalgae
		Bioethanol
		Biogas
		Bio-oil production
		Biodiesel
		Biohydrogen
		Biobutanol
	Situation and perspectives of macroalgae biomass for 3G bioenergy in Mexico
	Future trends and conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
Biocatalytic refining of polysaccharides from brown seaweeds
	Introduction
		Brown seaweed production
		A European perspective
		Biorefining of brown algae
		Composition of brown seaweed
		Biocatalytic refining of brown seaweed carbohydrates-Targets and challenges
		Enzymatic refining of the individual polysaccharides
	Enzymatic refining of the brown seaweed polymers alginate, laminaran, and fucoidan
		Alginate and alginate-modifying enzymes
			Alginate
			Modification of alginate by mannuronan C-5 epimerases
			Depolymerization of alginates by alginate lyases
		Laminaran and its enzymatic conversion
			β-Glucans in brown seaweed
			Depolymerization of laminaran
			Synthesis reactions by retaining glycoside hydrolases
			Potential health-promoting effects of laminaran/laminari-oligosaccharides
		Fucoidans and fucoidan-modifying enzymes
			Structures of fucoidans
			Bioactivity of fucoidans and the effect of sulfate content
			Fucoidanases and fucosidases
			Sulfatases
	Microbial refining of brown algal polysaccharides
		Brown algae as carbon source for fermentation
		Native microbes converting brown algae glucans to fuel alcohols, platform, and specialty chemicals
		Engineered microbes utilizing alginate and simultaneous utilization of the constituent carbohydrates from brown algae
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Seaweeds: A promising bionanofactory for ecofriendly synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles
	Introduction to nanotechnology
	Algae
		Classification
		Composition
		Applications
	Synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles
		Revision on classical methods
		Green methods
		Factors controlling the biosynthesis of nanoparticles led by seaweeds
		Characterization of biogenic nanoparticles
		Mechanism of synthesis of nanoparticles from algae
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
Seaweed polysaccharides as sustainable building blocks for biomaterials in tissue engineering
	Introduction
	Seaweeds: A sustainable source of natural biopolymers
		Fucoidan
		Carrageenan
		Ulvan
		Alginate
		Agarose
	Biomaterials and properties: Multiple combination with other natural polymers
		Processing methodologies
		Natural/chemical crosslinking and physiological degradation
		Bioactive polymer enabling functional biomaterials
	Tissue engineering applications
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	Conflict of interest
	References
Agricultural uses of seaweed
	Seaweed as an agricultural resource
	Agronomic interest of seaweed
		Seaweed as organic fertilizer
		Seaweed as a soil quality improver
		Seaweed as a plant biostimulant
		Seaweed as an agricultural input
	References
Utilization of seaweed waste: Biosorption of toxic compounds onto invasive seaweed and seaweed wastes
	Introduction
	Invasive and waste algal biosorbents
	Data analysis
	Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References
Sustainable technologies for seaweed conversion to biofuels and bioproducts
	Introduction
	Seaweed as a sustainable bioenergy feedstock
		Global seaweed production potential
		Harvesting and processing logistics
	Seaweed composition
	Conversion technologies to maximize the delivery of a sustainable bioenergy platform
		Historical energy production
		Acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation
		Anaerobic digestion
		Microbial degradation of structural polymers
		High-value product extraction
	Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References
Life cycle assessment of macroalgal ecoindustrial systems
	Global societal challenges-a call for designing a regenerative circular seaweed bioeconomy
		SDGs framework
		Ecosystem services
	Key aspects in designing a LCA: A decision support tool for developing and regulating the seaweed bioeconomy
		Brief introduction to LCA methodology and key terminology
		FU definition and the choice of LCI modeling framework
			FU definition
			Attributional LCA or consequential LCA?
		Climate-neutral seaweed ecoindustrial systems and associated restorative services
	Case studies: A demonstration of climate-neutral macroalgal ecoindustrial systems
		System-level LCA for documenting the carbon neutrality of industrial ecology systems
			Macroalgal ecoindustrial system I
			Macroalgal ecoindustrial system II
		Upscaling circular seaweed bioeconomy to address global societal challenges
			The balance between the assimilated and avoided emissions (negative) and the process emissions (positive)
			The balance of the assimilated, avoided, and reduced emissions (negative) and the process emissions (positive)
	Future perspectives: A need for an integrated ecosystem-based assessment framework quantifying the progress toward SDGs
		Uncertainties in LCA results and limitations of the LCA methodology
		The need for integrating impact pathway modeling to LCA
		The need for a triple-helix management framework
	References
	Further reading
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