Sustainable Management of Phytoplasma Diseases in Crops Grown in the Tropical Belt: Biology and Detection (Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection, 12)

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: The CpnClassiPhyR Facilitates Phytoplasma Classification and Taxonomy Using cpn60 Universal Target Sequences
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Results
		1.2.1 Generation of Novel cpn60 UT Sequences from Previously Unexplored Phytoplasmas
		1.2.2 The CpnClassiPhyR: A Cpn(60-Based) Classi(Fier for) Phy(Toplasmas Using) R(FLP) Analysis
		1.2.3 New Group/Subgroup Registration Service
		1.2.4 CpnClassiPhyR Output
		1.2.5 Application of the CpnClassiPhyR to the Identification of New Groups and Subgroups
		1.2.6 Discrepancies
		1.2.7 Application of the CpnClassiPhyR to cpn60 Sequences Extracted from Genomes
	1.3 Discussion
	1.4 Materials and Methods
		1.4.1 Generation of cpn60 and 16S rRNA Amplicon from Phytoplasmas
		1.4.2 CpnClassiPhyR Code
		1.4.3 Phylogenetic Analysis
		1.4.4 Examination of Genome Sequences for 16S rRNA and cpn60 Gene Sequences
	1.5 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 2: Epidemiology of Non-culturable Phloem-Limited Pathogens of Citrus; Case Study Phytoplasma
	2.1 Introduction: Citrus and Citriculture in Iran
	2.2 Challenging Diseases of Citrus in Iran
		2.2.1 Witches’ Broom Disease of Lime (WBDL), Host Range, and Plant Response to the Pathogen
		2.2.2 Greening or Huanglongbing, Host Range, and Plant Response to the Pathogen
	2.3 Practical Measures to Control Phloem-Limiting Pathogens of Citrus; Case Study Phytoplasma
		2.3.1 WBDL and HLB Origins and Foreign and Internal Quarantine for Effective Sanitation Practices in Citrus Orchards
		2.3.2 Accurate and Early Detection of the Pathogen
		2.3.3 Vector Control by Chemical Spray
		2.3.4 Eradication of Trees with Symptoms
		2.3.5 Control of CPa by Injecting Surfactant or Antibiotic Tetracycline
		2.3.6 Cross-Protection
		2.3.7 Breeding Programs and Horticultural Best Practices
		2.3.8 New Tools Through Implementation of Genetic Engineering
	2.4 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 3: Occurrence and Distribution of Phytoplasma Diseases in Iran
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Phytoplasma Diseases in Poaceae
	3.3 Phytoplasma Diseases in Vegetable Crops
	3.4 Phytoplasma Diseases in Oilseed Crops
	3.5 Phytoplasma Diseases in Alfalfa
	3.6 Phytoplasma Diseases in Weeds and Ornamental Plants
	3.7 Phytoplasma Diseases in Pome Fruits
	3.8 Phytoplasma Diseases in Stone Fruits
	3.9 Phytoplasma Diseases in Grapevine
	3.10 Phytoplasma Diseases in Citrus Crops
	3.11 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Diversity of Phytoplasmas in Cuba, Their Geographic Isolation and Potential Development of Management Strategies
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Economically Important Plants Infected by Phytoplasmas in Cuba
		4.2.1 Sapodilla
		4.2.2 Soybean
		4.2.3 Papaya
	4.3 Diversity of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’ Species in Cuba
	4.4 Insect Vectors Transmitting Phytoplasmas in Cuba
	4.5 Existing and Potential Management Techniques
	4.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: Integrated Management of Napier Grass Stunt Disease in East Africa
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Economic Importance of Napier Grass
	5.3 Napier Grass Stunt Disease Outbreak in East Africa
	5.4 Napier Grass Stunt Phytoplasma Transmission
	5.5 Management of Napier Grass Stunt Disease in East Africa
		5.5.1 Roguing
		5.5.2 Use of Napier Grass Stunt Disease Tolerant Cultivars
		5.5.3 Quality Seed Production and Distribution Systems
			5.5.3.1 Introduction
			5.5.3.2 Micropropagation
			5.5.3.3 Hot Water Treatment
			5.5.3.4 Seed Multiplication Protocols and Standards for Napier Grass
		5.5.4 Effects of Defoliation (Cutting) on Management of Napier Grass Stunt Disease
		5.5.5 Control of the Insect Vector
		5.5.6 Use of Healthy Napier Grass Plants and Quarantine
		5.5.7 Use of Alternative Grasses
	5.6 Recommendations and Future Research
	References
Chapter 6: Mineral and Plant Oils as Management Tools to Control Insect Vectors of Phytoplasmas
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Oil Composition and Properties
		6.2.1 Mineral Oil Structure and Activities
		6.2.2 Plant Oils
	6.3 Modes of Action of Oils
		6.3.1 Physiological Effects on Insect Vectors
		6.3.2 Behavioral Effects on Insect Vectors
		6.3.3 Effects on Pathogen/Vector Interaction
		6.3.4 Effects on Host Plant
	6.4 Physical Factors Affecting Oil Efficacy
	6.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Phytoplasma Diseases Affecting Cassava
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Cassava Phytoplasma Disease in Latin America and the Caribbean
		7.2.1 Cassava Frogskin Disease (CFSD)
			7.2.1.1 Distribution, Symptoms and Epidemiology
			7.2.1.2 Molecular Characterisation of Phytoplasma
			7.2.1.3 Phytoplasma Isolate and Pathogenicity Tests
		7.2.2 Cassava witches’-broom disease
			7.2.2.1 Biology
			7.2.2.2 Symptoms and Effects on Yield
		7.2.3 Cassava Phytoplasma Antholysis
			7.2.3.1 Biology
			7.2.3.2 Symptoms
			7.2.3.3 Epidemiology
		7.2.4 CFSD, CWB and Antholysis Control
	7.3 Cassava Phytoplasma Disease in Asia
		7.3.1 Cassava witches’-broom disease
			7.3.1.1 Epidemiology
			7.3.1.2 Control
	7.4 Genetic Diversity among CFSD and CWB Strains
	7.5 Cassava Phytoplasma Disease in Africa
		7.5.1 Control
	7.6 Cassava Phytoplasma Disease in Oceania
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Management of Phytoplasmas in Urban Trees
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Phytoplasma Diseases of Urban Trees
	8.3 Management of Phytoplasma Diseases in Planted Urban Trees
		8.3.1 Conventional Approaches
		8.3.2 Integrated Management Approach
		8.3.3 Host Resistance
		8.3.4 Environmental Conditions
		8.3.5 Vector Management
	8.4 Perspectives
	References
Chapter 9: Biological Control of the Leafhopper Dalbulus maidis in Corn Throughout the Americas: Interaction Among Phytoplasma- Insect Vector- Parasitoids
	9.1 Introduction: General Aspects of Hemiptera-Phytoplasma-Host Plant Interactions
	9.2 Dalbulus maidis- MBSP- Zea spp. Interactions
	9.3 Biological Control of Dalbulus maidis
	9.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: The Resistance of Jujube Trees to Jujube Witches’ Broom Disease in China
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 JWB Disease Management
		10.2.1 Control with Antibiotics
		10.2.2 The Screening of Cultivars with High Resistance to JWB
		10.2.3 The Jujube Genes Involved in Responses to Phytoplasma Infection
		10.2.4 The Novel Photosynthetic Response Pattern of the Resistant Cultivar to Phytoplasma Infection
	10.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Integrated Management of Coconut Lethal Yellowing Phytoplasma Disease in Mozambique: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Socio-economic Implications of LYD in Mozambique
	11.3 Lethal Yellowing Disease Cycle
		11.3.1 Host Range
		11.3.2 Disease Transmission
		11.3.3 The Impact of Oryctes monoceros Beetle on LYD Epidemic in Mozambique
	11.4 Integrated Management of Coconut Lethal Yellowing Disease
		11.4.1 Plant Resistance
		11.4.2 Cultural Practices
		11.4.3 Biological Control
		11.4.4 Chemical Control
	11.5 Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 12: Impact and Management of Major Phytoplasma Diseases in Brazil
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Corn Stunt
		12.2.1 Symptomatology
		12.2.2 Leafhopper Transmission
		12.2.3 Host Plants
		12.2.4 Control
	12.3 Brassica Stunt
		12.3.1 Vectors
		12.3.2 Alternative Hosts
		12.3.3 Epidemiological Analysis
		12.3.4 Control
	12.4 Cassava Witches’-Broom
		12.4.1 Brief History
		12.4.2 Importance and Control
	12.5 Final Remarks
	References