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ویرایش: سری: ناشر: OECD Publishing سال نشر: 2001 تعداد صفحات: 490 زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 2 مگابایت
در صورت تبدیل فایل کتاب Sustainable Development: Critical Issues (Development Centre Studies) به فرمت های PDF، EPUB، AZW3، MOBI و یا DJVU می توانید به پشتیبان اطلاع دهید تا فایل مورد نظر را تبدیل نمایند.
توجه داشته باشید کتاب توسعه پایدار: مسائل بحرانی (مطالعات مرکز توسعه) نسخه زبان اصلی می باشد و کتاب ترجمه شده به فارسی نمی باشد. وبسایت اینترنشنال لایبرری ارائه دهنده کتاب های زبان اصلی می باشد و هیچ گونه کتاب ترجمه شده یا نوشته شده به فارسی را ارائه نمی دهد.
چگونه میتوانیم نیازهای امروز را برآورده کنیم، بدون اینکه از ظرفیت نسلهای آینده برای برآوردن نیازهایشان کاسته شود؟ این سوال اصلی مطرح شده توسط "توسعه پایدار" است. کشورهای OECD خود را متعهد به توسعه پایدار در کنوانسیون سازمان ملل متحد در سال 1992 کردند
How can we meet the needs of today without diminishing the capacity of future generations to meet theirs? This is the central question posed by "sustainable development". OECD countries committed themselves to sustainable development at the 1992 UN Con
FOREWORD TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I Chapter 1. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1. ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL TRENDS Introduction Economic growth, technology and globalisation Figure 1.1. Long-term trends in real GDP per capita in major world regions Figure 1.2. Long-term trends in productivity and key technologies Environmental pressures Table 1.1. International targets for preserving life support systems Figure 1.3. Global temperatures and emissions of greenhouse gases Table 1.2. Economic pressures on biodiversity Figure 1.4. Annual freshwater withdrawals, 1997 Figure 1.5. Trends in environment and natural resources in OECD countries Table 1.3. Environmental factors affecting health Figure 1.6. Economic losses from large weather-related disasters Figure 1.7. World population projections Social pressures Figure 1.8. Trends in inequality in real GDP per capita between countries Box 1.1 International development goals Figure 1.9. Dependency ratios in OECD countries Figure 1.10. Trends in income inequality within OECD countries Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 2. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 2. KEY FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES Introduction Historical background Interactions among key dimensions of sustainable development Figure 2.1. Some interactions between economic, social and environmental factors Needs, resources and productivity Needs Capital Figure 2.2. Different types of capital and human well-being Productivity Complementarity and substitutability among types of capital Box 2.1. The role of social capital in sustaining human well-being Valuation and aggregation of different types of capital Internalising externalities and providing public goods Figure 2.3. Total value of natural capital Population size and per capita well-being Future generations: time horizons and discount rates Risks and uncertainties Intra-generational equity and social sustainability Sustainability at the sectoral and local levels Conclusions Box 2.2. Important elements of sustainable development policies NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 3. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 3. MEASUREMENT Introduction Measurement considerations Box 3.1. OECD work relevant to sustainable development measurement Assessing overall sustainability Box 3.2. Genuine savings as an indicator of sustainable development Figure 3.1. Genuine savings rates, 1998 Frameworks for measuring sustainable development Accounting frameworks Box 3.3. Examples of resource accounting for subsoil assets: European Union pilot study results Analytical frameworks Resource indicators Environmental assets Economic assets Social assets Table 3.1. Resource indicators Possible resource indicators Outcome indicators Towards an OECD set of sustainable development indicators Table 3.2. Outcome indicators Box 3.4. Key principles in selecting sustainable development indicators Table 3.3. A preliminary set of sustainable development indicators Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Annex 3.A. Annex 3.A. INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Figure 3.A.1. CO2 emissions from energy use Figure 3.A.2. Total man-made NOx and SOx emissions Figure 3.A.3. Total freshwater abstraction and resources Figure 3.A.4. Consumption of energy resources Figure 3.A.5. Major protected area in per cent of territory in 1996 Figure 3.A.6. Multi-factor productivity growth Figure 3.A.7. Net foreign assets and current account balance Figure 3.A.8. Proportion of the population (25-64 years) with upper secondary/tertiary qualifications Figure 3.A.9. Public expenditure on education Figure 3.A.10. Standardised unemployment rates Figure 3.A.11. Household consumption and waste generation Figure 3.A.12. Income inequality Figure 3.A.13. Life expectancy at birth Figures 3.A.14. Urban air quality Figures 3.A.14. Urban air quality Figure 3.A.15. Employment to population (over 15 years) ratio Figure 3.A.16. Total enrolment as a proportion of total population Section II Chapter 4. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 4. INSTITUTIONS AND DECISION MAKING Key institutional issues Integrated approaches to decision-making Participation of citizens Box 4.1. The Aarhus Convention Taking a longer-term view Domestic institutional developments The changing role and function of government: consequences for sustainable development Supplementing the existing framework with new institutions and processes Box 4.2. Organisational approaches to sustainable development within the executive: some examples The role of civil society International institutional developments Foundations of the international institutional architecture Implementation of key sustainable development principles Table 4.1. Overview of some key international and regional organisations and sustainable development Table 4.1. Overview of some key international and regional organisations and sustainable development (cont.) Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 5. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 5. POLICY INSTRUMENTS Introduction Improving the policy framework The need for a more effective and efficient regulatory framework Valuing externalities in practice Table 5.1. Scope and applicability of main valuation techniques Integrating the social dimension The need for a coherent set of policy instruments Table 5.2. The array of environmental policy instruments Box 5.1. Main types of voluntary approaches in OECD countries. Box 5.2. Economic instruments for environmental protection Correcting market and intervention failures Subsidy reform Box 5.3. Environmental support measures Box 5.4. Effects of energy support removal Table 5.3. Trends in support levels in OECD countries Box 5.5. Social concerns and water subsidies Environmental taxes Box 5.6. Defining environmentally related taxes Figure 5.1. Revenues from environmentally related taxes in per cent of total tax revenue Box 5.7. Green tax reform and employment: is there a “double dividend”? Figure 5.2. Revenues from environmentally related tax-bases, 1995 Box 5.8. Dealing with competitiveness concerns: current practices Creating markets Box 5.9. Different types of transferable permits Box 5.10. Guidelines for the implementation of domestic tradable permits system Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 6. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 6. TECHNOLOGY Introduction Failures and obstacles to stimulating innovation for environmental sustainability Figure 6.1. Environmental R&D spending Box 6.1. The environmental goods and services sector Drivers of environmental innovation Table 6.1. Government budget appropriations and outlays for environmental R&D Table 6.2. . Pollution abatement capital expenditures in the US manufacturing sector by abatement technique, 1980-94 Box 6.2. National surveys on environmental innovation Box 6.3. WBCSD survey of “sustainable firms” Environmental policies for innovation Box 6.4. Innovation effects of the US sulphur dioxide tradable permits scheme Box 6.5. Carbon tax in Sweden Box 6.6. Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan Innovation policies for sustainable development Box 6.7. Wind power generation in California Box 6.8. UK Foresight Programme New technologies for sustainable development Information and communication technologies Biotechnology 15 Box 6.9. Industrial use of bio-catalysts Addressing negative externalities and promoting public acceptance of new technology International co-operation for the development and diffusion of clean technologies 16 Stimulating innovation that is beneficial for the environment: the role of policy NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 7. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 7. EXPERIENCE IN OECD COUNTRIES Introduction Policy co-ordination Sectors Figure 7.1. Water prices in selected OECD countries 1 Figure 7.2. Taxes on diesel and petrol as of January 2000 Figure 7.3. Air pollution externalities due to motor car fuels, Belgium Co-ordination The legal system Table 7.1. Environmental impact and regulatory assessment in selected OECD countries Table 7.1. Environmental impact and regulatory assessment in selected OECD countries (cont.) Cost-benefit analysis Table 7.2. Legal liability and standing in selected OECD countries Choice of instrument Economic instruments Table 9.3. Use of economic instruments in OECD countries Box 7.1. Transactions and prices in US emission trading Figure 7.4. Emissions trading in the United States Box 7.2. Renewable electricity programmes Table 7.4. Incentives for electricity from renewable energy in selected OECD countries Voluntary agreements Some obstacles to implementation: competitiveness and income distribution Competitiveness Box 7.3. Competitiveness concerns as a factor shaping policies Figure 7.5. Fuel prices and taxes in neighbouring countries, 1999 Distributive effects NOTES REFERENCES Section III Chapter 8. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 8. INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND INVESTMENT Introduction Recent trends and policy developments concerning trade and international investment Trends Figure 8.1. Annual growth rate of merchanise exports from low and middle income countries 1987-1997 Table 8.1. OECD foreign direct investment outflows by region Table 8.2. Major recipients of OECD foreign direct investment outflows Box 8.1. The “greening” of portfolio investment Figure 8.2. Total OECD foreign direct investment outflows to selected sectors Policy developments Remaining barriers to trade and investment How trade and investment affect sustainable development: opportunities and risks Economic growth Box 8.2. Bribery, corruption and sustainable development Environmental protection Box 8.3. Examples of environmental benefits and risks linked to trade Social development Policies to promote sustainable development in an integrating world economy Strengthening national policies International policy responses Firm-level responses Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 9. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 9. STRATEGIES FOR NON-MEMBER COUNTRIES Introduction Table 9.1. Eight countries with critical global weight Partnerships for sustainable development: key objectives and principles The OECD Development Assistance Committee’s Strategy for development co-operation Box 9.1. The past 50 years: achievements and the role of development co-operation Focusing around shared goals and monitoring progress Democratic accountability, the protection of human rights, and the rule of law Adequate, well co-ordinated support and a conducive policy environment Figure 9.1. Selected long-term flows from OECD to developing countries, 1980-99 Figure 9.2. Net ODA receipts and foreign direct investment in selected regions, 1997-99 Shaping effective sustainable development strategies National strategies for sustainable development: a Rio commitment Translating commitment into action Key prerequisites in shaping sustainable development strategies Box 9.2. Political, economic and environmental reforms are mutually supportive: evidence from economies in transition in Central and Eastern Europe and the Newly Independent States 3 Box 9.3. Effectiveness of sustainable development strategies New international initiatives Box 9.4. Examples of sustainable development strategies Sustainable development and poverty reduction Poverty-environment linkages Two major threats: desertification and biodiversity loss Combating poverty while enhancing natural resource management: key policies and strategies Box 9.5. Stopping environmentally damaging activities by the non-poor in Sri Lanka The role of development co-operation Managing rapid urbanisation Key trends Urbanisation: benefits and trade-offs Box 9.6. Curitiba: an urban success story Managing urban growth: policies and strategies Box 9.7. Private sector participation in the provision of urban water and wastewater services: key lessons from experience The role of development co-operation Helping developing countries avail of the opportunities arising from increased international investment and trade: policy and institutional challenges Risks from increased openness to trade and investment: accelerated natural resource degradation Risks from openness to capital markets The role of Development Co-operation: key areas for capacity development Fostering greater policy coherence in OECD countries Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Section IV Chapter 10. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 10. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Introduction Natural resources: characteristics and ownership Characteristics Figure 10.1. A classification of natural resources based on their physical characteristics Ownership and access Natural resources and sustainable development Natural resource depletion: scarcity, technological change and recycling Box 10.1. Measures of natural resource scarcity Box 10.2. Recycling Figure 10.2. Real prices for selected minerals and metals Figure 10.3. Real prices of selected commodities Figure 10.4. Trends in wood growing stock, 1980s and 1990s Figure 10.5. World fish production Box 10.3. Measuring biodiversity Environmental impacts of natural resource use and resource degradation Resource values Box 10.4. The price of a non-renewable natural resource Box 10.5. Methods for valuing externalities Natural resource management policy issues Development of property rights and markets Removal of subsidies that have been shown to hamper sustainable resource use Reducing resource degradation and enhancing the provision of environmental services Box 10.6. Instruments for natural resource management Box 10.7. Initiatives to preserve biodiversity in Finland Management of publicly owned natural resource based assets Table 10.1. Annual worldwide investment requirements for water resources Reducing pollution by natural-resource-based industries Dealing with information shortfalls Box 10.8. Two examples of information provision Addressing distributive implications of natural resource management policies Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 11. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 11. CLIMATE CHANGE Introduction The nature of the problem Impacts and vulnerability Figure 11.1. Annual anomalies in average near-surface temperatures, Northern Hemisphere, 1860-1999 Box 11.1. Desertification, biodiversity and climate change Estimated costs of climate change Table 11.1. Estimates of the regional impacts of climate change International framework for co-operation Box 11.2. Key features of the Kyoto Protocol Box 11.3. The clean development mechanism National implementation strategies Figure 11.2. Greenhouse gases emissions and Kyoto targets, industrialised countries The energy dimension Figure 11.3. Contributions to changes in emissions of carbon dioxide in OECD countries, 1973-1998 Box 11.4. Higher energy prices drive energy efficiency and technical change National policy developments Table 11.2. Examples of ancillary benefits of greenhouse gas mitigation, by sector The costs of achieving the Kyoto Protocol Single gas mitigation Multi-gas mitigation Figure 11.4. Costs of implementing the Kyoto targets under alternative assumptions, 2010 Carbon uptake by sinks 15 Use of the Kyoto mechanisms Adjustment costs and other missing factors Ancillary benefits and costs The long -term challenge Assisting developing countries Box 11.5. Assisting developing countries in responding to climate change Negotiating mitigation commitments Box 11.6. Developing countries and climate change: highly differentiated contributions and vulnerabilities Figure 11.5. Long term concentration pathways for carbon dioxide Box 11.7. Alternative forms of mitigation commitments Figure 11.6. Emission allowances in alternative scenarios, 2010-2050 Estimated costs of long term stabilisation targets 24 Table 11.3. Costs of alternative concentration targets for Annex I and non-Annex I countries The policy challenge Mitigation Adaptation Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Section V Chapter 12. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 12. ENERGY Introduction Figure 12.1. Average life-spans for selected energy-related capital stock The energy system The short to medium term Figure 12.2. Composition of world energy demand by region Figure 12.3. World primary energy supply by fuel Figure 12.4. World energy-related services The long term The social dimension: energy supply and access A case study of the power sector Figure 12.5. Reserve margins in electricity generating capacity for selected OECD countries Energy and environmental sustainability Extraction, production and processing Transport Table 12.1. Airborne concentrations of major pollutants, 1995 Figure 12.6. Progress in reducing selected emissions from power generation in OECD countries Box 12.1. The case of particulates, NO X and SO X Combustion and energy use Box 12.2. The case of greenhouse gases Figure 12.7. World energy-related carbon dioxide emissions Sustainable economic growth: the role of markets Sustainability of the current energy system: energy indicators The role of governments Box 12.3. Life cycle analysis and the assessment of sustainability Table 12.2. Estimates of damage costs from energy-related airbome emissions Table 12.3. Life cycle emissions from renewable energy Fiscal and market instruments Figure 12.8. Electricity prices and electricity use per GDP, 1996 Regulation and voluntary initiatives Research and development policies Are there ‘win-win-win’ opportunities? Renewable energy Table 12.4. Development of renewable energy Energy efficiency Technology Figure 12.9. Learning curves for selected electric technologies in the EU, 1980-1995 The magnitude of the investment challenge Table 12.5. Energy investments in developing countries Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 13. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 13. TRANSPORT Introduction Transport demand and outlook Figure 13.1. Passenger travel by car in OECD regions Sustainable development concerns in the transport sector Environmental impact Figure 13.2. Transport energy demand in OECD countries Figure 13.3. Marine oil spills, 1970-1999 Social impacts Objectives Targets Transport sectors: current strategies for improving sustainability Aviation Maritime transport Land transport Reducing emissions impacts of motor vehicles Potential energy and emissions savings from changes in transport modes Economic instruments Subsidies Regulation Longer-term considerations Figure 13.4. Motor vehicle ownership per capita Action priorities, rationale and approach Box 13.1. Guidelines for environmentally sustainable transport (EST) Atmosphere and resources Water quality Urban amenity Transport noise Transport safety Public health Transport demand Broad approach: economic, pricing and regulatory measures Evaluation methodologies Conclusions Short-term and precautionary action Longer-term measures Prerequisites for success NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 14. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 14. AGRICULTURE Introduction Demands on agriculture Food Uncertain demand growth for non-food commodities Demands relating to public goods and externalities Factors affecting the supply capacity of agriculture Box 14.1. Managing genetic resources Recent trends in the performance of the sector Economic trends Social trends Box 14.2. Horticulture and immigrant labour Environmental trends Figure 14.1. Soil surface nitrogen balance estimates, 1985-87 to 1995-97 Meeting sustainability objectives for agriculture Agricultural policy reform An ecosystem approach Structural adjustment Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 15. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 15. MANUFACTURING Introduction Resource use Figure 15.1. OECD manufacturing resource use, 1980-1997 Table 15.1. Energy use and intensity of selected US manufacturing sectors Air pollution Figure 15.2. OECD manufacturing air pollutant emissions, 1980-1997 Toxic releases Sectoral case studies Chemicals Table 15.2. Pollution intensities of selected manufacturing sectors Iron and steel Table 15.3. Pollutant releases of selected steps of the steelmaking process Pulp and paper Textiles Automobiles Table 15.4. Principal polluting outputs of automobile production Electronics Table 15.5. Polluting outputs of selected electronics production Environmental implications of structural change in industry Table 15.6. Key environmental parameters of manufacturing and services Manufacturing Table 15.7. Output and growth of selected OECD manufacturing sectors Table 15.8. Changes in pollution intensities in OECD manufacturing due to structural change Traditional services Figure 15.3. Energy use in OECD industrial and commercial and public sectors, 1978-1997 Figure 15.4. Fossil fuel and electricity intensities of US industrial and commercial sectors, ICT-based services Policy implications Environmental management in industry Environmental policy approaches NOTES REFERENCES Chapter 16. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 16. TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT Introduction From a remedial to a proactive approach The need for an integrative, cross-sectoral approach The challenges of restoring the land and improving the built environment Box 16.1. Urban deconcentration Changing policy priorities Key issues in territorial development: strategies for people and places Strategies for local sustainability Box 16.2. Implementing Agenda 21 at the territorial level Local and regional policies for economic and social development Box 16.3. An example of an eco-industrial network Box 16.4. Labour market initiatives Territorial policies for rural development Territorial policies for urban areas Box 16.5. Urban redevelopment initiatives Building territorial development strategies for sustainability: a common approach? Modes of intervention: systems and policies for the sustainable management of territories A strategic approach to territorial management Box 16.6. Vertical and horizontal integration A tool kit of policy instruments and mechanisms Table16.1. Examples of applying sustainability in spatial planning and territorial development policy Box 16.7. Financial incentives for sustainable development Box 16.8. Implementation for sustainable territorial development Box 16.8. Implementation for sustainable territorial development (cont.) Conclusions NOTES REFERENCES Annex 1 GLOSSARY ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS