Structural Geology: An Introduction to Geometrical Techniques - 4th edition

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 17
Acknowledgements......Page 19
1.2 Definitions......Page 21
1.3 Dip and strike......Page 22
1.4 Accuracy of angle measurements......Page 25
1.5 Graphic methods......Page 30
1.6 Finding apparent dip......Page 33
1.7 Analytical solutions......Page 35
1.8 Cotangent method......Page 37
1.9 True dip and strike......Page 38
1.10 Dip vectors......Page 40
1.11 Three-point problem......Page 44
1.12 Observed apparent dips......Page 45
1.13 Exercises......Page 47
2.1 Definitions......Page 50
2.3 Thickness by direct measurement......Page 51
2.4 Thickness from indirect measurements......Page 52
2.5 Apparent thickness......Page 56
2.6 Thickness between non-parallel planes......Page 59
2.7 Thickness in drill holes......Page 61
2.8 Depth to a plane......Page 63
2.9 Distance to a plane......Page 64
2.10 Error propagation......Page 66
2.11 Exercises......Page 74
3.2 Linear structures......Page 77
3.3 Plunge of a line......Page 79
3.4 Pitch of a line......Page 81
3.5 Intersecting planes......Page 84
3.6 Cotangent method......Page 85
3.7 Structure contours......Page 86
3.8 Line vectors......Page 87
3.9 Accuracy of trend determinations......Page 89
3.10 Exercises......Page 91
4.1 Exposures on horizontal surfaces......Page 92
4.2 Effect of topography......Page 94
4.3 Dip and strike from a geological map......Page 96
4.4 Linear interpolation......Page 97
4.5 Parallel lines......Page 99
4.6 Three-point problem......Page 100
4.7 Structure contours......Page 102
4.8 Predicting outcrop patterns......Page 104
4.9 Exercises......Page 107
5.2 Stereogram......Page 108
5.3 Stereonet......Page 112
5.4 Plotting techniques......Page 113
5.5 Measuring angles......Page 119
5.6 Attitude problems......Page 121
5.7 Polar net......Page 124
5.8 Dip and strike errors......Page 125
5.9 Intersection errors......Page 126
5.10 Exercises......Page 127
6.2 Basic techniques......Page 129
6.3 Sequential rotations......Page 134
6.4 Rotations about inclined axes......Page 136
6.5 Rotational problems......Page 138
6.6 Tilting problems......Page 139
6.7 Two tilts......Page 141
6.8 Folding problems......Page 142
6.9 Small circles......Page 144
6.10 Exercises......Page 148
7.1 Introduction......Page 150
7.2 Sum of vectors......Page 154
Dot product......Page 156
Cross product......Page 159
7.4 Circular distributions......Page 163
7.5 Spherical distributions......Page 167
7.6 Rotations......Page 169
7.7 Rotational problems......Page 174
Coordinate geometry......Page 177
Vector analysis......Page 180
8.1 Definitions......Page 185
8.2 Fault classification......Page 186
8.3 Slip and separation......Page 188
8.4 Faults in three dimensions......Page 192
8.5 Slip and its determination......Page 194
8.6 Overthrusts......Page 199
8.7 Fault terminations......Page 202
8.8 Faults and folds......Page 204
8.9 Extension and contraction......Page 205
8.10 Rotation......Page 208
8.11 Facing on faults......Page 214
8.12 Dilation of dikes......Page 215
8.13 Exercises......Page 217
9.1 Introduction......Page 218
9.2 Traction......Page 219
9.3 Stress components......Page 221
9.4 Stress in two dimensions......Page 224
Uniaxial stress......Page 225
Biaxial stress......Page 226
Pure shear stress......Page 227
General two-dimensional stress......Page 228
9.5 Mohr Circle for stress......Page 229
9.6 Superimposed stress states......Page 235
9.7 Pole of the Mohr Circle......Page 237
9.8 Role of pore pressure......Page 242
9.9 Deviatoric and hydrostatic stress......Page 243
9.10 Stress ellipse......Page 244
9.11 Tractions versus forces......Page 247
9.12 Stress tensor......Page 249
9.13 Exercises......Page 258
10.2 Experimental fractures......Page 260
10.3 Role of friction......Page 261
10.4 Coulomb criterion......Page 267
10.5 Limitations......Page 270
10.7 Faults and stresses......Page 271
10.8 States of stress at depth......Page 274
10.9 Magnitudes of stress components......Page 277
10.10 Open fractures......Page 281
10.11 Stress drop......Page 282
10.12 Faults in anisotropic rocks......Page 283
10.13 Oblique faults......Page 284
10.15 Earthquakes......Page 286
10.16 Exercises......Page 287
11.1 Introduction......Page 289
11.2 Continuum assumption......Page 293
11.3 Homogeneous deformation......Page 296
11.4 Analysis of simple shear......Page 298
11.5 Superimposed deformations......Page 304
Forward model......Page 307
Inverse problem......Page 309
11.7 Deformation and related tensors......Page 310
11.8 Exercises......Page 320
12.2 Deformed grains......Page 322
12.3 Deformed fossils......Page 324
12.4 Deformed pebbles......Page 326
12.5 Geometry of the strain ellipse......Page 329
Change in orientation......Page 330
Change in length......Page 331
Change of a right angle......Page 332
12.6 Mohr Circle for finite strain......Page 333
12.7 Pole of the Mohr Circle......Page 335
12.8 Strain from measured angles......Page 336
12.9 Strain from measured stretches......Page 341
12.10 Restoration......Page 348
12.11 Strain and related tensors......Page 351
12.12 Exercises......Page 363
13.2 Active tectonics......Page 366
13.3 Ancient tectonics......Page 369
13.4 Progressive deformation......Page 370
Pure shear flow......Page 374
13.5 Kinematics......Page 376
13.6 Deformation rates from structures......Page 385
13.7 Exercises......Page 387
14.2 Single surfaces......Page 389
14.4 Associated structures......Page 395
14.5 Fold orientation......Page 399
14.6 Isogon classification......Page 402
14.7 Thickness variation......Page 405
14.8 Alternative graphs......Page 406
14.10 Best-fit indicatrix......Page 408
15 Parallel folds......Page 417
15.2 Rounded folds......Page 430
Thickness and strain......Page 432
Basic technique......Page 436
Dip interpolation......Page 439
15.4 Balanced cross sections......Page 446
15.5 Depth of folding......Page 447
15.6 Non-parallel modifications......Page 450
15.7 Angular folds......Page 453
15.8 Angular folds in cross section......Page 455
15.9 Faults in fold cores......Page 458
15.11 Exercises......Page 459
16.3 Single-sense shear......Page 461
16.4 Shear folds in three dimensions......Page 464
16.5 Superposed folds in two dimensions......Page 465
16.6 Wild folds......Page 469
16.7 Superposed folds in three dimensions......Page 470
16.8 Exercises......Page 472
17.2 Outcrop patterns......Page 474
17.3 Down-plunge view......Page 476
17.4 Fold profile......Page 479
17.6 Computer graphs......Page 483
17.7 Transformation of axes......Page 484
17.9 Exercises......Page 487
18.2 S-pole and beta diagrams......Page 488
18.3 Fold axis and axial plane......Page 489
18.4 Equal-area projection......Page 490
18.6 Equal areas......Page 493
18.7 Contoured diagrams......Page 494
18.8 Statistics of scatter diagrams......Page 498
18.9 Computer-generated diagrams......Page 500
18.10 Interpretation of diagrams......Page 502
18.11 Superimposed folds......Page 504
18.12 Sampling problems......Page 507
18.13 Engineering applications......Page 509
18.14 Exercises......Page 510
19.2 Isotropy and homogeneity......Page 513
19.4 Planar and linear fabrics......Page 514
Planar structures......Page 516
Linear structures......Page 517
Principal linear, subordinate planar structure......Page 520
Principal planar, subordinate linear structure......Page 521
19.7 Exercises......Page 522
20.1 Introduction......Page 524
20.2 Oriented cores......Page 525
20.3 Cores without orientation......Page 527
20.4 Cores with a known plane......Page 530
20.5 Two drill holes......Page 531
20.6 Analytical solution......Page 533
20.7 Three drill holes......Page 535
20.8 Interpretation of folds......Page 536
21 Maps and cross sections......Page 537
21.1 Geological maps......Page 538
21.2 Other types of maps......Page 541
21.3 Geological history......Page 542
21.4 Structure sections......Page 543
21.6 Vertical exaggeration......Page 547
21.7 Enlarged sections......Page 552
21.8 Exercises......Page 553
22.2 Isometric projection......Page 554
22.3 Isometric cube as a strain problem......Page 556
22.4 Orthographic projection......Page 559
22.5 General cube......Page 560
22.6 Computer plot of cube......Page 561
22.7 Geological structure......Page 563
22.8 Orthographic cube as a strain problem......Page 564
22.9 Topography......Page 567
22.10 Modified blocks......Page 568
22.11 Exercises......Page 570
A.2 Orthographic projection......Page 571
A.3 Graphical solutions......Page 573
Angle bisector......Page 574
Line bisector......Page 575
Third principal view......Page 576
Vertical auxiliary view......Page 577
Inclined auxiliary view......Page 578
A.8 Point view of a line......Page 579
A.9 Projection of a plane......Page 580
A.11 Normal view of a plane......Page 581
A.12 Coordinate geometry and vector components......Page 582
B.1 Introduction......Page 584
B.4 Examples of right-triangles......Page 585
Pitch......Page 588
Strike error......Page 589
Direction cosines......Page 590
Intersection errors......Page 591
B.5 Oblique-spherical triangles......Page 592
Unambiguous cases......Page 594
B.6 Examples of oblique triangles......Page 595
Drill hole problem......Page 596
References......Page 598
Index......Page 615