Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products

01 Front-Matter_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products
02 Copyright_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	Copyright
03 Dedication_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	Dedication
04 List-of-contributors_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	List of contributors
05 Preface-to-the-first-edition_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Product
	Preface to the first edition
06 Preface-to-the-fifth-edition_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Product
	Preface to the fifth edition
07 About-the-editor_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	About the editor
08 Acknowledgments_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	Acknowledgments
Chapter-1---Introduction-to-cereal-grains--pse_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains
	1. Introduction to cereal grains, pseudocereals, oilseeds, and pulses
		References
Chapter-2---A-brief-journey-through_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-
	2. A brief journey through history
		2.1 Storage in the ancient world
		2.2 Storage in the Middle Ages
		2.3 Effects of colonization and industrialization
		2.4 The development of modern storage
		2.5 Historic storage structures in use today
		2.6 Grain history resources
		2.7 Grain museums
		2.8 Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
Chapter-3---Overview-of-storage-systems-for-c_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-
	3. Overview of storage systems for cereal grains and grain products
		3.1 General considerations
			3.1.1 Functions and definitions
			3.1.2 Conditions of safe grain storage
			3.1.3 Grain quality
		3.2 Major types of storage
			3.2.1 Underground
			3.2.2 Bagged
			3.2.3 Farm bins
			3.2.4 Bin sites
			3.2.5 Country elevators
			3.2.6 Terminal/export elevators
			3.2.7 Ground piles
			3.2.8 Storage at processing plants and elsewhere
		3.3 Structural aspects of grain storage
			3.3.1 Upright silos
			3.3.2 Steel bins
			3.3.3 Flat storage
		3.4 Grain handling
			3.4.1 Receiving and loadout
			3.4.2 Cleaning and drying
				3.4.2.1 Cleaning
				3.4.2.2 Drying
			3.4.3 Scales
			3.4.4 Automation
			3.4.5 Behavior of grain during bulk handling
		3.5 Maintaining quality during storage
			3.5.1 Basic threats
			3.5.2 Insects
			3.5.3 Fungi
			3.5.4 Moisture
			3.5.5 Temperature
			3.5.6 Spoutlines
			3.5.7 Remedial actions
				3.5.7.1 Aeration
			3.5.8 Costs
		3.6 Operating hazards and safety measures
		3.7 Storage facilities and capacities
		3.8 Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
Chapter-4---Alternative-and-emerging-storage_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-a
	4. Alternative and emerging storage practices and technologies
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Storage practice and information and computing technology
			4.1.2 Alternative technologies and high performance computing
			4.1.3 ``All models are wrong,\'\' but they can be useful
		4.2 Intellectual paradigms in which stored product developments are occurring
		4.3 Integrating harvesting and storage practices
			4.3.1 The preharvest/postharvest continuum
			4.3.2 A contemporary approach to the harvesting-postharvest technology continuum
			4.3.3 The detection of infested grains
		4.4 Harnessing solar energy for postharvest technology
			4.4.1 Solar energy and grain aeration
			4.4.2 A photovoltaic cell-powered aeration system
			4.4.3 The wet-bulb temperature is a key to grain storage
			4.4.4 Warm, humid climates require new approaches to grain storage
			4.4.5 Humid ambient air should be dried, but its temperature must not increase
		4.5 Solar-assisted grain drying
			4.5.1 Grain drying is energy intensive
			4.5.2 Bulks of grain dry slowly
			4.5.3 Practical considerations when devising alternative drying strategies
			4.5.4 Barriers to the use of solar energy
			4.5.5 Emerging technologies for grain drying
				4.5.5.1 The sky is cold-even during the day
			4.5.6 Emerging technologies for improving solar air heaters for drying grains
			4.5.7 Heat loss to the atmosphere
			4.5.8 Transpired solar collectors
			4.5.9 Plastics can be used as solar absorbers
			4.5.10 The storage of thermal energy
			4.5.11 A tentative design rule for solar drying
		4.6 Recircaeration and refrigaeration
			4.6.1 Refrigeration in the humid tropic is energy intensive
		4.7 The role of insulation in grain cooling strategies
			4.7.1 Some preliminaries
			4.7.2 Unaerated grain
			4.7.3 Insulation of refrigerated grain stores
			4.7.4 Much of the grain close to the wall is not cooled
		4.8 Percussion
		4.9 Modified atmospheres
			4.9.1 Insects ``drown\'\' in water vapor
			4.9.2 Computational science and modeling the distribution of carbon dioxide
				4.9.2.1 Sorption isotherms are required
			4.9.3 Diffusion of carbon dioxide
			4.9.4 Hyperbaric storage
			4.9.5 Hermetic storage
			4.9.6 Silo bags
		4.10 The role of computational science in developing alternative technologies
			4.10.1 The design of hopper-bottomed silos for aerating and drying grains
			4.10.2 Extending the useful life of fumigants
			4.10.3 The importance of data gathered at extrema
		4.11 A framework for developing and implementing alternative storage practices
		References
Chapter-5---Grain-storage-in-developin_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-The
	5. Grain storage in developing countries
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Postharvest losses of cereal in developing countries
		5.3 Main causes of post-harvest losses of grain in developing countries
		5.4 Traditional grain storage methods and structures
			5.4.1 Traditional temporary storage methods
				5.4.1.1 Aerial storage
				5.4.1.2 Storage on the ground or on drying floors
				5.4.1.3 Open timber platform
				5.4.1.4 Storage cribs
				5.4.1.5 Mud block silos
			5.4.2 Traditional long-term storage methods
				5.4.2.1 Storage bags or sacks
				5.4.2.2 Underground storage pits
				5.4.2.3 Traditional granaries
				5.4.2.4 Community grain stores/grain banks/warehouses
				5.4.2.5 Concrete structures
		5.5 Modern farm grain storage methods
			5.5.1 Admixing grain with synthetic and botanical pesticides
			5.5.2 Fumigation
			5.5.3 Metal silos
			5.5.4 Hermetic storage bags
				5.5.4.1 Hermetic plastic storage bags
		5.6 Alternative grain storage methods
			5.6.1 Recycled vegetable oil containers/jerry cans
			5.6.2 Periodic physical disturbance
		5.7 Conclusions
		References
Chapter-6---Structural--physical--and-engineering_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Gra
	6. Structural, physical, and engineering properties of cereal grains and grain products
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 General structures and proportions of principal parts
		6.3 Architecture of kernels
		6.4 Husk
		6.5 Pericarp and aleurone
			6.5.1 Sorghum
			6.5.2 Corn
			6.5.3 Rice
			6.5.4 Wheat, rye, and triticale
			6.5.5 Oats, barley
		6.6 Germ (embryo)
		6.7 Endosperm
			6.7.1 Wheat, rye, barley, and triticale
			6.7.2 Rice
			6.7.3 Oats
			6.7.4 Corn, sorghum, and millet
		6.8 Physical and engineering properties of grains and grain products
			6.8.1 Size and shape
			6.8.2 Porosity and void ratio
			6.8.3 Bulk density/test weight
			6.8.4 Kernel density
			6.8.5 Angle of repose
			6.8.6 Angle of internal friction
			6.8.7 Coefficient of friction on wall materials
			6.8.8 Coefficient of restitution
			6.8.9 Bulk compressibility
			6.8.10 Pressures in bins
			6.8.11 Flow of grains and products from bins and hoppers
			6.8.12 Hardness of grain
			6.8.13 Breakage of grain
			6.8.14 Stress cracking
			6.8.15 Cleaning of grain
			6.8.16 Grain dust
			6.8.17 Thermal properties
			6.8.18 Grain products, by-products, and coproducts
		6.9 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-7---Design-and-engineering-considerations-_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Gr
	7. Design and engineering considerations for grain storage, handling, and processing facilities
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Overview of grain handling and storage facilities
		7.3 Facility planning considerations
		7.4 Considerations prior to designing and constructing
		7.5 Life safety design considerations
			7.5.1 Model building codes
				7.5.1.1 Use and occupancy requirements
				7.5.1.2 Construction type
				7.5.1.3 Height and floor areas
				7.5.1.4 Location on site
				7.5.1.5 Special requirements in the 2018 IBC
				7.5.1.6 Guard rails
				7.5.1.7 Stairs
				7.5.1.8 Exiting and egress
				7.5.1.9 Mezzanines
				7.5.1.10 Equipment access platforms
				7.5.1.11 Building envelope
				7.5.1.12 Fire separation
				7.5.1.13 Fire protection
				7.5.1.14 OSHA
			7.5.2 Housekeeping
			7.5.3 Supplemental codes and standards
				7.5.3.1 Structural design considerations
			7.5.4 Overview of grain elevator loads
			7.5.5 Load combinations
			7.5.6 Foundations
				7.5.6.1 Ring foundation design
				7.5.6.2 Mat slab design
			7.5.7 Pits and tunnels
			7.5.8 Silo and bin walls
				7.5.8.1 Flow channel method
				7.5.8.2 Crack control in concrete walls
				7.5.8.3 Concrete walls under combined tension and bending
				7.5.8.4 Concrete walls under compressive loads
				7.5.8.5 Minimum slip form concrete wall thickness
				7.5.8.6 Design of walls for lateral forces
				7.5.8.7 Design of walls for lateral forces
				7.5.8.8 Steel bin walls vertical wall capacity
			7.5.9 Elevated concrete floors
			7.5.10 Hoppers
			7.5.11 Roof design
			7.5.12 Equipment support towers and bridges
		7.6 Process design considerations
			7.6.1 Primary systems and components
			7.6.2 Receiving
				7.6.2.1 Distribution/material handling
				7.6.2.2 Storage
				7.6.2.3 Reclaim
				7.6.2.4 Loadout
		7.7 Secondary systems and components
			7.7.1 Cleaning
			7.7.2 Aeration
			7.7.3 Drying
			7.7.4 Dust control
			7.7.5 Sampling and inspection
			7.7.6 Instrumentation and control
		7.8 Design engineering methodology
		7.9 Conclusions
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-8---Sampling--inspecting--an_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their
	8. Sampling, inspecting, and grading
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 History
		8.3 United States standards for grain
		8.4 Sampling
			8.4.1 Diverter-type mechanical sampler
			8.4.2 Probe or trier sampler
			8.4.3 Pelican sampler
			8.4.4 Ellis cup sampler
			8.4.5 Probe-type mechanical sampler
			8.4.6 Sampling problems
				8.4.6.1 Homogeneity
				8.4.6.2 Performance and accuracy
		8.5 Inspection and grading
			8.5.1 Preliminary examinations
			8.5.2 Condition factors
			8.5.3 Type
			8.5.4 Class and subclass
			8.5.5 Test weight per bushel
			8.5.6 Moisture
			8.5.7 Dockage
			8.5.8 Foreign material
			8.5.9 Damaged kernels
			8.5.10 Other factors
			8.5.11 Grading
			8.5.12 Inspection problems
				8.5.12.1 System-generated variations
				8.5.12.2 New varieties
		References
Chapter-9---The-significance-of-moisture-and-its-_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Gra
	9. The significance of moisture and its measurement in cereal grains and grain products
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Quantification of moisture content
			9.2.1 Moisture content (wet basis, wb)
			9.2.2 Moisture content (dry basis, db)
			9.2.3 Converting moisture content
		9.3 Grain quantity determination
			9.3.1 Volumetric bushel
			9.3.2 Market bushel
			9.3.3 Dry-matter bushel
			9.3.4 Grain shrinkage and expansion
				9.3.4.1 Shrink factor
				9.3.4.2 Grain moisture shrinkage value
				9.3.4.3 Determination of total shrink
			9.3.5 Grain overdrying
			9.3.6 Blending
		9.4 The behavior of moisture in bulk solids
			9.4.1 Nonuniformity
			9.4.2 Moisture transfer
			9.4.3 Moisture sorption and hysteresis
			9.4.4 Moisture migration during various seasons
		9.5 Moisture content and microbiological deterioration
		9.6 Allowable storage time
			9.6.1 Safe storage periods
			9.6.2 How to determine the accumulated safe storage period
		9.7 Sampling
		9.8 Methods of measuring moisture content
			9.8.1 Karl Fisher method
			9.8.2 Direct methods
				9.8.2.1 Air ovens
				9.8.2.2 Vacuum oven
				9.8.2.3 Microwave oven technique
				9.8.2.4 Halogen analyzers
				9.8.2.5 Distillation method
			9.8.3 Indirect methods
				9.8.3.1 Grain moisture and temperature sensing cables
				9.8.3.2 Electrical methods
					9.8.3.2.1 Resistance methods
					9.8.3.2.2 Capacitance methods
				9.8.3.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance
				9.8.3.4 Near-infrared spectroscopy
		9.9 Precision and accuracy of grain moisture meters
		9.10 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-10---Cereal-grain-drying-s_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-P
	10. Cereal grain drying systems
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Concepts of grain drying
			10.2.1 MC and dry matter
			10.2.2 Safe MC for storage
			10.2.3 Equilibrium MC
				10.2.3.1 Effects of air temperature changes on EMC
				10.2.3.2 Effects of RH changes on EMC
			10.2.4 Grain drying theory
				10.2.4.1 Thin-layer drying
				10.2.4.2 Deep-bed drying
			10.2.5 Heat and mass balance
			10.2.6 Dryer characteristics
				10.2.6.1 Airflow
				10.2.6.2 Grain static pressure response
				10.2.6.3 Power requirements
				10.2.6.4 Heat
			10.2.7 Dryer performance
				10.2.7.1 Drying capacity
				10.2.7.2 Grain quality
			10.2.8 Grain drying fans
				10.2.8.1 Grain bin fan classifications
				10.2.8.2 Grain fans performance
				10.2.8.3 Multiple grain bin fans performance
			10.2.9 Grain drying systems
				10.2.9.1 Field drying
				10.2.9.2 Natural air bin drying systems
				10.2.9.3 Low-temperature bin drying systems
				10.2.9.4 Continuous-flow bin drying systems
				10.2.9.5 High-temperature bin drying systems
					10.2.9.5.1 In-bin batch drying systems
					10.2.9.5.2 Recirculating bin drying systems
					10.2.9.5.3 Continuous-flow bin drying systems associated with cooling bin
					10.2.9.5.4 Roof bin-batch drying systems
				10.2.9.6 Dryeration systems
				10.2.9.7 Combination of high-temperature and low-temperature drying system
				10.2.9.8 High-temperature column drying systems
					10.2.9.8.1 Batch column drying systems
					10.2.9.8.2 Continuous cross-flow column drying system
					10.2.9.8.3 Continuous crossover flow drying system
					10.2.9.8.4 Concurrent-flow drying system
					10.2.9.8.5 Mixed-flow drying system
			10.2.10 Other drying systems
				10.2.10.1 Solar energy drying systems
				10.2.10.2 Biomass energy drying systems
				10.2.10.3 FBD systems
				10.2.10.4 SSD systems
				10.2.10.5 IR drying systems
				10.2.10.6 MW drying systems
		10.3 Energy consumption and conservation
		10.4 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-11---Rice-drying-syste_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Produ
	11. Rice drying systems
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Mechanical rice drying systems
			11.2.1 Receiving station
			11.2.2 In-bin dryer system
				11.2.2.1 Natural air, in-bin drying
				11.2.2.2 Low-temperature in-bin drying
				11.2.2.3 High-temperature in-bin drying
			11.2.3 High-temperature cross-flow column drying
			11.2.4 Dryeration and combination drying
			11.2.5 Cooling and drying
			11.2.6 Research and development for dryers
				11.2.6.1 Fluidized bed drying
				11.2.6.2 Electromagnetic energy-driven drying
					11.2.6.2.1 Infrared drying
					11.2.6.2.2 Microwave drying
					11.2.6.2.3 RF drying
				11.2.6.3 Others (electrohydrodynamic drying and impingement air drying)
		11.3 Impacts of drying on milled rice quality
		11.4 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-12---Grain-aeration-systems-and-s_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-
	12. Grain aeration systems and storage management
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Purposes of aeration
			12.2.1 Grain temperature control
				12.2.1.1 Low-temperature storage
				12.2.1.2 Moisture migration
			12.2.2 Other uses
				12.2.2.1 Removing odors from grain
				12.2.2.2 Changing or equalizing grain moisture
				12.2.2.3 Fumigant application
				12.2.2.4 Holding moist grain
				12.2.2.5 Removing dryer heat
		12.3 Aeration theory
			12.3.1 Moisture reduction during cooling
			12.3.2 Aeration with high- or low-humidity air
			12.3.3 Cooling (or warming) zones
		12.4 Aeration system design
			12.4.1 Airflow rates
			12.4.2 Fan selection
			12.4.3 Air distribution
		12.5 Aeration system operation
			12.5.1 Seasonal aeration schedules
				12.5.1.1 Immediately after storage
				12.5.1.2 Late fall
				12.5.1.3 Winter
				12.5.1.4 Spring
				12.5.1.5 Summer
			12.5.2 Daily interval fan operation
			12.5.3 Airflow direction
				12.5.3.1 Advantages of upward airflow (pressure system)
				12.5.3.2 Disadvantages of upward airflow
				12.5.3.3 Advantages of downward airflow (suction system)
				12.5.3.4 Disadvantages of downward airflow
				12.5.3.5 Other considerations
			12.5.4 Other management suggestions
				12.5.4.1 Caution
		Disclaimer
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-13---Hazard-monitoring-equipment-selec_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains
	13. Hazard monitoring equipment selection, installation, and maintenance
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Elements of a dust explosion
		13.3 Hazardous area classification
			13.3.1 NEC 2020: Classes, divisions, and groups and zones
			13.3.2 Note
			13.3.3 European Union approvals
			13.3.4 Worldwide approvals
		13.4 Monitoring points on select machinery
		13.5 Summary of required monitoring points on machinery
		13.6 Sensor devices
			13.6.1 Belt slip sensors
			13.6.2 Belt misalignment sensors
			13.6.3 Head and tail pulley misalignment sensors
			13.6.4 Bearing temperature sensors
			13.6.5 Plugged spout sensors
			13.6.6 Other monitoring points
		13.7 System design and configuration
			13.7.1 Sensors
			13.7.2 Control device and alarm/shutdown signaling
			13.7.3 Equipment selection
		13.8 Installation
			13.8.1 General
			13.8.2 Mechanical
			13.8.3 Network and computer wiring
			13.8.4 Speed sensor installation
			13.8.5 Testing and system handover
			13.8.6 Maintenance
		13.9 Summary
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-14---Safety--human-interactions--and_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-a
	14. Safety, human interactions, and decision-makings processes
		14.1 Challenges of measuring grain elevator safety
		14.2 Measuring worker safety
		14.3 Characteristics of grain elevator employees
		14.4 Effective safety intervention
		14.5 Decision-making analysis
		14.6 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-15---Identity-preservation-in-grain-supply-_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-G
	15. Identity preservation in grain supply chains and considerations for genetically modified materials∗
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Segregation, IP, and traceability
		15.3 Increased production of GM crops
			15.3.1 US and EU approaches to GM
			15.3.2 Costs and benefits of IP for GM
				15.3.2.1 Diseconomies of size
				15.3.2.2 Testing
				15.3.2.3 Tolerances
			15.3.3 Non-GM storage and handling issues
			15.3.4 Non-GM price premiums
			15.3.5 Failures of IP
		15.4 Conclusions
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-16---Dust-control-and-explosio_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-The
	16. Dust control and explosion prevention
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Dust explosion elements
			16.2.1 Fuel
			16.2.2 Oxygen
			16.2.3 Confinement
			16.2.4 Ignition source
			16.2.5 Dust explosion limits
			16.2.6 Grain dust surface layer depths
		16.3 Development of dust explosions
		16.4 Prevention
		16.5 Facility design and dust removal equipment
		16.6 Housekeeping
		16.7 Safety programs and emergency action plans
		16.8 Guidelines to minimize grain dust explosion conditions
		16.9 Summary
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-17---Biochemical--functional--and-nut_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-
	17. Biochemical, functional, and nutritive changes during storage
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Respiration
			17.2.1 Measurement of respiration
			17.2.2 Respiration of stored grain
				17.2.2.1 Moisture
				17.2.2.2 Temperature
				17.2.2.3 Aeration
				17.2.2.4 Condition
			17.2.3 Dry matter loss
		17.3 Biochemical changes
			17.3.1 Changes in carbohydrates
			17.3.2 Changes in nitrogenous compounds
				17.3.2.1 Total protein
				17.3.2.2 Protein fractions
				17.3.2.3 Enzymes and free amino acids
			17.3.3 Sick wheat
			17.3.4 Changes in lipids
		17.4 Nutritive changes
			17.4.1 Changes in minerals
			17.4.2 Changes in carbohydrates
			17.4.3 Changes in proteins
			17.4.4 Changes in vitamins
		17.5 Effects of drying
			17.5.1 General
			17.5.2 Malting
			17.5.3 Feeding value
			17.5.4 Corn milling
			17.5.5 Rice quality
			17.5.6 Bread making
			17.5.7 Blending of wet and dry grain
		17.6 Organic acid-treated grain
		17.7 Dormancy, viability, germination, and malting
			17.7.1 Dormancy
			17.7.2 Controlling length of dormancy
			17.7.3 Viability
			17.7.4 Maintaining seed viability and quality
		17.8 Functional changes in wheat
			17.8.1 General
			17.8.2 Decreases in bread making quality-wheat and wheat flour
			17.8.3 Wheat whole meal, bran, and germ
			17.8.4 Postharvest maturation of wheat
			17.8.5 Postmilling maturation of flour
			17.8.6 The nature of maturation
			17.8.7 Changes in flavor and odor
				17.8.7.1 Changes due to insects
				17.8.7.2 Changes due to microorganisms
		17.9 Functional changes in other cereals
			17.9.1 Corn
			17.9.2 Rice
			17.9.3 Barley
			17.9.4 Oats and breakfast cereals
			17.9.5 Millet
		17.10 Indexes of deterioration
			17.10.1 Appearance and odor
			17.10.2 Respiration
			17.10.3 Germination
			17.10.4 Biochemical tests
				17.10.4.1 Enzymatic assays
				17.10.4.2 Tetrazolium tests
				17.10.4.3 Fluorescence
				17.10.4.4 Acidity
				17.10.4.5 Fat acidity and bread making quality
				17.10.4.6 Indexes of fungal growth
		17.11 Summary
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-18---Microflora-and-storage_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-
	18. Microflora and storage molds
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Microflora of grains and seeds
			18.2.1 Bacteria
			18.2.2 Filamentous fungi and yeasts
				18.2.2.1 Field fungi
				18.2.2.2 Storage fungi
		18.3 When storage fungi invade seeds
		18.4 Effects of storage fungi on seeds
			18.4.1 Reduction in germinability
			18.4.2 Discoloration
			18.4.3 Respiration and heating
			18.4.4 Mustiness, caking, and total decay
			18.4.5 Catastrophic losses
		18.5 Conditions that promote damage to grains by storage fungi
			18.5.1 Moisture content, temperature, and time as determinants of storage risk
			18.5.2 Degree to which grain is already invaded by storage fungi
			18.5.3 Foreign material and mechanical damage
			18.5.4 Insects and mites
		18.6 Temperature monitoring and aeration
		18.7 Sampling and testing
		18.8 Predicting grain storability
		18.9 Characteristics of major storage fungi
			18.9.1 A. restrictus
			18.9.2 A. glaucus
			18.9.3 A. candidus
			18.9.4 A. ochraceus
			18.9.5 A. flavus
			18.9.6 Penicillium spp
		18.10 Preservatives for grains and grain products
		18.11 Additional resources
		18.12 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
Chapter-19---Mycotoxins-in-grai_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Prod
	19. Mycotoxins in grains∗
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Aflatoxins
			19.2.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.2.2 Effects in humans and domestic animals
			19.2.3 Producing organisms
			19.2.4 Biosynthesis and enzymatic basis for aflatoxin structural differences
			19.2.5 Aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster
			19.2.6 Monitoring for aflatoxins and regulatory levels
		19.3 Fumonisins
			19.3.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.3.2 Effects in humans and domestic animals
			19.3.3 Producing organisms
			19.3.4 Fumonisin biosynthesis and the enzymatic basis for structural variation
			19.3.5 Fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster
			19.3.6 Analysis and regulatory/advisory limits
		19.4 Ochratoxins
			19.4.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.4.2 Effects in humans and domestic animals
			19.4.3 Producing organisms
			19.4.4 Ochratoxin biosynthesis and the enzymatic basis for structural variation
			19.4.5 Ochratoxin biosynthetic gene cluster
			19.4.6 Monitoring for ochratoxins and regulatory levels
		19.5 Trichothecenes
			19.5.1 Effects in humans and domestic animals
		19.6 T-2 toxin
			19.6.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.6.2 Producing organisms
			19.6.3 Monitoring of T-2 toxin
		19.7 Deoxynivalenol
			19.7.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.7.2 Producing organisms
			19.7.3 Trichothecene biosynthesis and the enzymatic basis for structural variation
			19.7.4 Trichothecene biosynthetic gene cluster
			19.7.5 Advisory levels and monitoring for DON
		19.8 Zearalenone
			19.8.1 Structural diversity and chemical properties
			19.8.2 Effects in humans and domestic animals
			19.8.3 Producing organisms
			19.8.4 ZEN biosynthetic pathway and gene cluster
			19.8.5 Analysis and regulatory/advisory limits
		19.9 Additional resources for monitoring mycotoxins
		19.10 Conclusions
		References
Chapter-20---Rodents-and-grai_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Produc
	20. Rodents and grain
		20.1 Significance
			20.1.1 General
			20.1.2 Local storage aspects
			20.1.3 Grain contamination
			20.1.4 Farm and environmental considerations
		20.2 Types of rodents
			20.2.1 Wild
			20.2.2 Commensal
				20.2.2.1 Rats
				20.2.2.2 Mice
		20.3 Rodent biology
			20.3.1 Life history and habits
			20.3.2 Recognition of rodent infestations
			20.3.3 Summary of rodent habits and introduction to control
			20.3.4 Ecology of rodent control
				20.3.4.1 Rodent movements
				20.3.4.2 Population dynamics
				20.3.4.3 Population limits
		20.4 Control measures against rats and mice
			20.4.1 Cleaning and sanitation
			20.4.2 Rodent-proofing
				20.4.2.1 General principles of rat-proofing
				20.4.2.2 Rat-proofing in rural areas
				20.4.2.3 Rodent-proofing urban structures
			20.4.3 Rodent control through poisoning
				20.4.3.1 Poison baits
				20.4.3.2 Choice of rodenticide
			20.4.4 Fumigation
			20.4.5 Trapping
				20.4.5.1 Snap traps
				20.4.5.2 Other traps and devices
		20.5 Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-21---Insects-in-grains--identificati_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-a
	21. Insects in grains: identification, damage, and detection
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Insect classification, structure, and development
			21.2.1 Classification
			21.2.2 Structure
			21.2.3 Development
		21.3 Insects in stored grain and grain products
			21.3.1 Internal infestors
				21.3.1.1 Grain weevils
				21.3.1.2 Grain borers
					Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica [Fabricius])
					Larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus [Horn])
				21.3.1.3 Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella [olivier])
			21.3.2 External infestors
				21.3.2.1 Flour beetles (Tribolium spp.)
				21.3.2.2 Grain beetles (Oryzaephilus spp.)
				21.3.2.3 Grain beetles (Cryptolestes spp.)
				21.3.2.4 Grain-infesting dermestids
				21.3.2.5 Other beetles
					Cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanicus [L.])
					Cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne [F.])
					Drugstore beetle (Stegobium paniceum [L.])
				21.3.2.6 Externally infesting moths
					Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella [Hübner])
					21.3.2.6.2 Other pyralid moths
				21.3.2.7 Insects in high-moisture grain and products
					Foreign grain beetle (Ahasverus advena [Waltl])
					Hairy fungus beetle (Typhaea stercorea [L.])
				21.3.2.8 Mealworms
				21.3.2.9 Psocids
				21.3.2.10 Grain-infesting mites
					Grain mite (Acarus siro L.)
			21.3.3 Parasites and predators of grain insects
		21.4 Ecological and environmental factors affecting stored product insect populations
			21.4.1 Temperature
			21.4.2 Moisture
			21.4.3 Dockage
		21.5 Damage caused by stored product insects
			21.5.1 Direct damage to grain kernels and grain products
				21.5.1.1 Consumption of grain kernels
				21.5.1.2 Contamination of grain and cereal products
				21.5.1.3 Damage to structures, equipment, and containers
			21.5.2 Indirect damage to grain and grain products
				21.5.2.1 Heating and contributing to other forms of deterioration
				21.5.2.2 Distribution of microorganisms in grain masses
				21.5.2.3 Consumer resistance to contaminated products
		21.6 Detection of insect infestation
			21.6.1 Visual examination
			21.6.2 Detecting internal infestors
				21.6.2.1 Stain techniques
				21.6.2.2 Flotation methods
				21.6.2.3 Radiographic (X-ray) examination
				21.6.2.4 Sound (aural) detection
				21.6.2.5 Carbon dioxide measurement
				21.6.2.6 Ninhydrin-impregnated paper
				21.6.2.7 Other measures to detect internal infestation
			21.6.3 Detecting insects in the environment
		21.7 Conclusions
		Acknowledgment
		References
Chapter-22---Control-of-insect-pests-d_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-The
	22. Control of insect pests during storage
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Insect pest management in stored bulk raw grains
			22.2.1 Insect pests
			22.2.2 Integrated pest management in raw stored bulk grains
			22.2.3 Pre-binning treatments
			22.2.4 Grain protectants
				22.2.4.1 Conventional neurotoxins
				22.2.4.2 Insect growth regulators
				22.2.4.3 Other products
			22.2.5 Temperature management (aeration)
			22.2.6 Fumigation
		22.3 Management inside mills, food production facilities, and finished product storage
			22.3.1 Introduction
			22.3.2 Sampling and monitoring
			22.3.3 Insecticides
				22.3.3.1 Contact surface treatments
				22.3.3.2 Aerosols
				22.3.3.3 Fumigants
			22.3.4 Sanitation and cleaning
			22.3.5 Temperature management-heat and cold
			22.3.6 Insect-resistant packaging
		22.4 Summary
		Acknowledgment
		References
Chapter-23---Integrated-pest-manag_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-P
	23. Integrated pest management
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Prevention and management
			23.2.1 Managing bulk stored grain
				23.2.1.1 Storage structures
					Prebinning
					Extreme temperature
				23.2.1.2 Bulk stored grain
					Aeration and grain chilling
					Grain protectants
					Fumigation
					Modified or controlled atmospheres
					Biocontrol
			23.2.2 Managing processing facilities and finished product storage
				23.2.2.1 Surface treatments
				23.2.2.2 Aerosol insecticides
				23.2.2.3 Insecticide treated, hermetic, or insect-proof packaging
		23.3 Detection and monitoring
			23.3.1 Sampling
			23.3.2 Trapping
		23.4 Current challenges and future directions
			23.4.1 Regulatory issues
			23.4.2 Resistance
		23.5 Summary
		References
		Further reading
Chapter-24---Fumigation_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	24. Fumigation
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Principles of fumigation
		24.3 Types of fumigation
		24.4 Methods of application
		24.5 Monitoring
		24.6 Safety
		24.7 Further information
		24.8 Summary
		References
Chapter-25---Economics-of-grain-st_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-P
	25. Economics of grain storage
		25.1 Rationale for grain storage
		25.2 Segregation, blending, and comingling
			25.2.1 Segregation
			25.2.2 Blending and comingling
			25.2.3 Identity preservation
		25.3 Types of grain storage structures
			25.3.1 Slipform concrete silos
			25.3.2 Jumpform concrete silos
			25.3.3 Steel bins
			25.3.4 Flat grain storage
			25.3.5 Bulk grain bags
			25.3.6 Temporary ground piles and bunkers
		25.4 Storage ownership options
			25.4.1 On-farm storage
			25.4.2 Condominium storage
			25.4.3 Commercial grain storage facilities
			25.4.4 Grain storage at train loading facilities
			25.4.5 River grain terminals
			25.4.6 End user storage
		25.5 The decision to store grain
			25.5.1 Expected return to storage
			25.5.2 Seasonal grain prices
			25.5.3 Hedging grain prices using the future market
			25.5.4 Basis
		25.6 Storage costs
			25.6.1 Interest cost
			25.6.2 Utility costs
			25.6.3 Shrinkage
			25.6.4 Pest management costs
			25.6.5 Fixed costs of grain storage
		25.7 Returns on investment in storage structures
		25.8 Summary
		References
Chapter-26---Global-food-security-pe_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their
	26. Global food security perspective
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Trends in grain stockholding
		26.3 Role of stocks
			26.3.1 Emergency reserves for food security
			26.3.2 Stocks to stabilize prices (buffer stocks)
		26.4 Difficulties in measuring stocks
			26.4.1 Main estimation methods
			26.4.2 Improving international stock measures
		26.5 Stocks and food price volatility
		26.6 Concluding remarks
		References
Concluding-thoughts-and-future-pro_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-P
	Concluding thoughts and future prospects
		References
Index_2022_Storage-of-Cereal-Grains-and-Their-Products
	Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		J
		K
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		Q
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
		X
		Y
		Z