State Immunity in International Law

Cover
......Page 1
State Immunity in International Law......Page 3
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Foreword......Page 18
Preface and acknowledgements......Page 21
Abbreviations......Page 25
International Court of Justice......Page 32
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia......Page 33
Argentina......Page 34
Australia......Page 35
Austria......Page 36
Belgium......Page 38
Canada......Page 40
Denmark......Page 45
France......Page 46
Germany......Page 54
Greece......Page 58
Ireland......Page 59
Italy......Page 60
Japan......Page 67
Kenya......Page 68
The Netherlands......Page 69
New Zealand......Page 73
The Philippines......Page 74
Poland......Page 75
South Africa......Page 76
Spain......Page 77
Switzerland......Page 78
United Kingdom......Page 81
United States......Page 93
Zimbabwe......Page 154
Treaties......Page 155
Other International Documents......Page 158
National Legislation......Page 159
UN General Assembly Resolutions......Page 161
Reports of the International Law Commission......Page 162
Reports of the ILC Working Group......Page 165
Documents of the UN General Assembly Sixth Committee......Page 166
Reports of the UN Sixth Committee Working Group......Page 168
Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO)......Page 169
National Documents......Page 170
Harvard Research......Page 171
Institut de Droit International (IDI)......Page 172
International Law Association (ILA)......Page 173
Introduction......Page 175
1 The history of State immunity......Page 180
1. The age of absolute immunity......Page 181
2. Exceptions to absolute immunity......Page 184
3. The emergence of the doctrine of restrictive immunity......Page 185
4. The descent of the State......Page 193
5. The irrelevance of ideologies......Page 197
6. The defendant States......Page 199
7. The sources of the law of State immunity......Page 200
8. Cross-fertilization......Page 201
9. Terminology......Page 203
Conclusion......Page 205
2 General principles......Page 207
2. State immunity as a principle of customary international law......Page 208
3. The presumption of immunity......Page 211
4. Immunity and municipal law......Page 216
5. The legal basis for immunity......Page 218
5.1. 'Sovereignty' and the affiliated concepts......Page 220
5.2. Par in parem non habet imperium?......Page 225
5.3. What is the basis of immunity?......Page 229
6. The legal basis for denying immunity......Page 232
6.1. The 'private person' test......Page 233
6.2. The principle of territorial jurisdiction......Page 238
6.3. Private act plus territoriality - Binnenbeziehung......Page 242
Conclusion......Page 247
3 Commercial activity......Page 249
1. What is a commercial activity?......Page 250
2. What is a non-commercial activity?......Page 253
3. Nature or purpose?......Page 259
3.1. The 'nature' approach......Page 260
3.2. The difficulties with the 'nature' approach......Page 261
3.3. The 'purpose' approach......Page 272
3.4. The 'context' approach......Page 277
4. The jurisdictional nexus requirement under the US FSIA......Page 282
4.1.1. 'Based upon a commercial activity'......Page 284
4.1.2. 'Substantial contact'......Page 286
4.2. The second clause of section 1605 (a) (2)......Page 287
4.3. The third clause of section 1605 (a) (2)......Page 289
4.3.1. The 'act'......Page 290
4.3.2. The 'direct effect'......Page 298
4.3.3. 'An immediate consequence'......Page 299
4.3.4. The 'place of performance' test......Page 301
Conclusion......Page 303
4 Contracts of employment......Page 306
1. Terminology......Page 308
2.1. Specialized tribunals......Page 310
2.2. The inadequacy of the nature/private person test......Page 311
3. Two models......Page 317
4.1. The European Convention......Page 318
4.1.1. The plaintiff......Page 319
4.1.3. The choice of law......Page 321
4.2. The UK SIA......Page 322
4.2.3. The choice of law......Page 323
4.3. The Australia FSIA......Page 324
4.4. Other instruments......Page 326
4.5. The importance of having a contract......Page 328
5.1. The US FSIA......Page 331
5.2.2. Trade unions......Page 336
6. Diverse approaches......Page 338
6.1. The employment relationship......Page 339
6.2. The duties and functions of the employee......Page 340
6.3. The status of the employer......Page 344
6.4. The acts of the employer......Page 345
6.5. The status of the employee......Page 346
6.7. The territorial connection......Page 347
6.8. The choice of law clause......Page 348
6.9. The remedies sought......Page 349
7.1. Diplomatic and consular missions......Page 353
7.1.1. Proceedings against the foreign State......Page 355
7.1.2. 'Institutional aims'......Page 359
7.1.3. Proceedings against the diplomat personally......Page 365
7.2. Foreign armed forces......Page 367
8. Diversity and lack of uniform rules......Page 368
Conclusion......Page 370
1. Terminology......Page 373
2.1. Physical injury and tangible property......Page 374
2.2. 'Insurable risks'?......Page 375
2.3. 'Discretionary function'......Page 377
3. The jure imperii / jure gestionis distinction?......Page 381
4. The territorial connection......Page 389
4.1. Tortious act/omission only......Page 390
4.2. Injury/damage only......Page 392
4.3. Both tortious act/omission and injury/damage......Page 395
4.4. A direct effect?......Page 397
5. Attribution......Page 398
6. The terrorism exception in US law: a departure......Page 399
Conclusion......Page 402
6 Separate entities......Page 404
1. Terminology......Page 405
2.1. The UK Model......Page 406
2.2. The US Model......Page 416
2.2.2. A question of status......Page 418
2.2.3. 'A separate legal person'......Page 421
2.2.4. 'An organ of a foreign State'......Page 423
2.2.5. 'Pooling'......Page 433
2.2.6. 'Tiering'......Page 438
2.2.8. Other uses of the instrumentality status......Page 447
2.2.9. The Canadian law......Page 448
2.3. Comparison and summary......Page 451
2.4. Somewhere in-between: the Australian law and others......Page 454
2.5. The practice of the States without immunity statutes......Page 457
3. Piercing the corporate veil?......Page 461
Conclusion......Page 470
7 Expropriation......Page 472
1. The general principle: immunity......Page 473
2. Legality and immunity......Page 475
4. The 'expropriation' provision in the US FSIA......Page 477
4.1. 'Rights in property'......Page 479
4.2. 'Taken in violation of international law'......Page 481
4.3. The territorial nexus requirement......Page 485
5. The Helms-Burton Act......Page 487
Conclusion......Page 489
8 Waiver of immunity......Page 490
1.1. Who can waive immunity?......Page 491
1.2. Explicit or express waiver......Page 493
1.3. How explicit must an explicit waiver be?......Page 496
1.4. Implicit or implied waiver......Page 498
1.4.1. Arbitration......Page 499
1.4.2. The governing law of a contract......Page 501
1.4.3. Participation or involvement in litigation......Page 503
1.6. The specificity of waiver......Page 507
1.7. Counterclaims......Page 508
2. The UK practice......Page 509
4. Does a violation of human rights constitute an implied waiver?......Page 514
Conclusion......Page 516
9 Measures of constraint......Page 517
1. Terminology......Page 518
2. Two distinct immunities: immunity from suit and immunity from execution......Page 521
2.1. The judicial power of the court......Page 522
2.2. The universal distinction between the two immunities......Page 524
2.2.1. The treaties......Page 525
2.2.2. The US FSIA......Page 527
2.2.3. The UK SIA and other national statutes......Page 530
2.2.4. The practice of other States......Page 532
2.2.5. Two distinct immunities: a universal rule......Page 535
3. The resurfacing of the 'purpose' test......Page 536
3.2. The US FSIA......Page 537
3.3. The UK SIA and other national statutes......Page 541
3.4. The practice of the States without immunity legislation......Page 543
4. Prejudgment measures......Page 547
4.1. Immunity as a preliminary issue......Page 548
4.2.1. Under the same conditions as execution......Page 552
4.2.3. Under stricter conditions......Page 557
5.1. Waiver......Page 564
5.2. The 'purpose' test......Page 566
5.3.1. Legal instruments......Page 568
5.3.2. The practice of the States without immunity legislation......Page 572
5.4.2. Territorial connection - Binnenbeziehung......Page 573
5.4.3. The entity connection......Page 575
5.5. The territorial presence requirement......Page 576
6.1. Diplomatic property......Page 578
6.1.1. Diplomatic premises......Page 579
6.1.2. Embassy bank accounts......Page 581
6.2.1. The US FSIA......Page 584
6.2.2. The UK SIA......Page 588
6.2.3. The Australia FSIA......Page 590
6.3. Military property......Page 591
7.1. Mixed accounts......Page 592
Conclusion......Page 595
10 State immunity and human rights violations......Page 597
1. Territorial jurisdiction......Page 598
2. State immunity and criminal proceedings......Page 600
3. State immunity and jus cogens......Page 602
4. The assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction......Page 605
5. The State and its officials......Page 606
6. The Pinochet case: a dissection......Page 610
7. Immunity and legality......Page 612
Conclusion......Page 614
1. Early efforts at codification......Page 615
2. The work of the International Law Commission......Page 620
3. The debate in the General Assembly Sixth Committee......Page 621
4. Universal support for the UN Convention......Page 628
5. What the UN Convention enshrines......Page 629
6. What the UN Convention avoids......Page 630
Conclusion......Page 631
General conclusion......Page 633
Notes......Page 640
Bibliography......Page 880
Index......Page 921