State Control over Private Military and Security Companies in Armed Conflict

Contents......Page 6
Acknowledgements......Page 9
Abbreviations......Page 11
International Court of Justice/Permanent Court of International Justice......Page 13
European Court of Human Rights/European Commission on Human Rights......Page 14
Inter-American system......Page 15
UN Human Rights Committee......Page 16
International arbitral decisions......Page 17
United States......Page 18
Other jurisdictions......Page 19
United States......Page 20
Other jurisdictions......Page 21
Table of international treaties and conventions......Page 22
Introduction......Page 26
1 The private security industry uncovered......Page 31
1.1 History of private military actors in international relations......Page 32
Private force in twelfth- to seventeenth-century Europe......Page 33
The first shift away from mercenary use: state troop exchange......Page 34
The second shift away from mercenary use: citizen armies......Page 35
Private force in the twentieth century......Page 36
Lessons from history......Page 40
1.2 Objections to private force, mercenaries and modern PMSCs......Page 42
Lack of attachment to a cause......Page 43
Fighting outside the citizen–state military relationship......Page 46
The hiring state\'s lack of control over PMSC activities......Page 48
The home state\'s lack of control over PMSC activities......Page 50
General lack of transparency in the private security industry......Page 52
1.3 The spectrum of private military and security activity today......Page 53
Mercenaries......Page 54
Private military and security companies......Page 55
Volunteers......Page 56
National soldiers fighting for their home state......Page 57
Terminology......Page 58
General nature of PMSCs......Page 60
PMSC services......Page 64
Offensive combat......Page 65
Military and security expertise......Page 70
Armed security......Page 74
Military support......Page 76
1.5 Conclusion......Page 77
2 State obligations and state responsibility......Page 79
2.1 The nature of international obligations and conditions for breach......Page 80
2.2 The attribution of private misconduct to the state......Page 82
2.3 States’ obligations to take positive steps to control PMSCs......Page 84
Obligations of result......Page 85
Obligations of diligent conduct......Page 88
Identifying a due diligence obligation of prevention and punishment......Page 89
Mental element......Page 92
Positive action to discharge the obligation......Page 94
Resources available to the state......Page 96
Risk of violation......Page 97
Causation......Page 98
2.5 Circumstances precluding wrongfulness......Page 100
2.6 Consequences of state responsibility......Page 101
2.7 Conclusion......Page 103
3 The attribution of PMSC conduct to the hiring state......Page 105
International armed conflicts......Page 106
Non-international armed conflicts......Page 117
International armed conflicts......Page 120
Non-international armed conflicts......Page 122
3.2 PMSCs empowered by law to exercise governmental authority......Page 124
What constitutes \'governmental authority’?......Page 125
Private person test......Page 126
ILC guidelines......Page 127
US law and policy regarding \'inherently governmental’ functions......Page 133
What constitutes \'the law of the state’?......Page 136
When is a PMSC employee \'acting in that capacity’?......Page 137
3.3 PMSCs acting under state instructions, direction or control......Page 138
State instructions......Page 139
State direction or control......Page 142
3.4 Conclusion......Page 146
4 Obligations of the host state......Page 148
The obligation in Common Article 1 to \'ensure respect’ for IHL......Page 149
Nature and scope of Common Article 1......Page 150
Ensuring respect for IHL by private actors......Page 154
Positive action to discharge the obligation......Page 157
State responsibility for breach of Common Article 1......Page 161
Obligation to protect civilians in international armed conflict......Page 162
Obligation to repress or suppress violations of IHL......Page 164
Do the rules of IHL displace the rules of HRL in armed conflict?......Page 166
Derogating from human rights in times of emergency......Page 170
The principle of lex specialis......Page 172
Lex specialis as an exception or limitation to the general rule......Page 174
Obligation to prevent human rights violations by PMSCs......Page 177
Special measures targeting known sources of danger......Page 179
Protecting individuals whose lives are at risk......Page 181
Special obligations relating to women and children......Page 182
Obligations to investigate, punish and redress PMSC violations......Page 183
Sources of states’ obligations to investigate, punish and redress violations......Page 184
When will these obligations arise in relation to PMSC violations in armed conflict?......Page 186
Remedial action required of the host state......Page 188
4.3 How immunity agreements can undermine host state control over PMSCs......Page 191
4.4 Conclusion......Page 195
5 Obligations of the hiring state......Page 197
Constraints on the hiring state under international mercenary law......Page 198
The obligations of states party to the UN Convention......Page 200
The obligations of states party to the OAU Convention......Page 209
Constraints on the hiring state under international humanitarian law......Page 211
5.2 Obligations to control PMSCs under international humanitarian law......Page 212
Does Common Article 1 bind the hiring state in relation to PMSCs operating outside state territory?......Page 213
Does Common Article 1 bind the hiring state if it is not a party to the conflict?......Page 215
Positive action to discharge the Common Article 1 obligation......Page 217
State responsibility for a violation of Common Article 1......Page 221
Duty to train and disseminate......Page 222
Protection of civilians in international armed conflict......Page 224
Obligation to repress or suppress violations of IHL......Page 225
Special obligations of an occupying power......Page 226
5.3 Obligations to control PMSCs under human rights law......Page 227
Extraterritorial scope of human rights law......Page 228
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights......Page 229
Inter-American system......Page 232
European Convention on Human Rights......Page 235
Obligation to prevent human rights violations by PMSCs......Page 239
Special measures targeting known sources of danger......Page 240
Planning and controlling security operations to minimise the risk to life......Page 241
Protecting the physical integrity of detainees......Page 242
Positive action to discharge the preventive obligations......Page 243
Criminal investigation and prosecution......Page 246
Access to justice and compensation......Page 251
5.4 Conclusion......Page 252
6 Obligations of the home state......Page 254
6.1 General obligation to prevent private acts harmful to other states?......Page 255
6.2 Obligation to prevent PMSC intervention into other states......Page 258
Sources of the norm of non-intervention......Page 259
\'[S]ubversive, terrorist or armed activities’......Page 261
\'[D]irected towards the violent overthrow of’......Page 264
\'[T]he regime of another state’......Page 265
Positive action to discharge the obligation......Page 266
6.3 Obligations to control PMSCs under the law of neutrality......Page 268
The law of neutrality post-1945......Page 269
Circumstances in which the law of neutrality applies today......Page 271
The two-dimensional nature of the law of neutrality......Page 274
The law of neutrality and modern PMSCs......Page 276
Positive action to discharge the obligations......Page 278
6.4 Obligations to control PMSCs under international humanitarian law......Page 279
General human rights law......Page 281
The UN Convention Against Torture......Page 282
6.6 Conclusion......Page 283
Conclusion......Page 285
Bibliography......Page 289
Index......Page 319