Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes

Front cover......Page 1
Preface......Page 6
About the Editors......Page 8
Contributors......Page 10
Table of Contents......Page 12
Introduction......Page 14
1.2 A Brief Summary of the Origin of S/S Technology......Page 15
1.3 Post-RCRA Development of S/S Technology and Organization of the Book......Page 16
References......Page 18
2.1 Regulatory Basis for Use of S/S......Page 20
2.2 Scientific Basis of S/S......Page 23
2.3 Selection of S/S Technology......Page 24
2.4.1 Compatibility Between Cement and Waste Materials......Page 28
2.4.2 Chemical Fixation of Contaminants......Page 29
2.4.5 Durability of the Treated Waste or Contaminated Materials......Page 30
2.4.6 Cost-Effectiveness......Page 32
2.5 Evaluation of S/S Formulations......Page 33
References......Page 34
Classification and Characterization of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes......Page 38
3.1 Background and Overview......Page 39
3.2.1 Hazardous Waste Classification......Page 40
3.2.1.2 Listed Wastes......Page 41
3.2.2 Hazardous Waste Characteristics......Page 44
3.2.3.1 Question Determination Process......Page 46
3.2.3.2 Special Regulatory Conventions for Hazardous Waste......Page 51
3.3.1.2 Radioactive Waste Classification......Page 52
3.3.1.3 LLW Waste Subclassification......Page 54
3.3.2 Radioactive Waste Characterization......Page 56
3.4 Classification and Characterization of Mixed Wastes......Page 57
3.4.1.1 DOE Mixed Waste......Page 58
3.4.1.2 Non-DOE Mixed Waste......Page 59
3.4.2 Mixed Waste Characterization......Page 60
References......Page 61
4.1 Introduction......Page 62
4.2.1.1 Characterization and Hydration Chemistry......Page 63
4.2.1.2 S/S with Portland Cement......Page 65
4.2.2 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement......Page 67
4.2.3.2 Hydration and Microstructure of Portland Pozzolan Cements......Page 68
4.2.3.4 Portland Fly Ash Cement......Page 69
4.2.3.5 Portland Silica Fume Cement......Page 71
4.2.4 Portland Cement-Sodium Silicate System......Page 72
4.2.5 Polymer-Modified Portland Cement......Page 73
4.2.6 Masonry Cement......Page 74
4.3 Lime-Pozzolan Cement......Page 75
4.4 High-Alumina Cements......Page 77
4.5 Alkali-Activated Slag Cements......Page 79
4.6 Cement Kiln Dusts......Page 82
References......Page 83
5.1 Introduction......Page 92
5.2.1 Urea-Formaldehyde......Page 94
5.2.2 Polybutadiene......Page 95
5.2.3 Polyester Resins......Page 96
5.2.4 Summary for Thermosets......Page 97
5.3.1 Bitumen......Page 99
5.3.2 Polyethylene......Page 103
References......Page 108
Other Binders......Page 110
6.1 Phosphate Stabilization and Immobilization of Heavy Metal and Radionuclide Contaminants......Page 111
References......Page 120
6.2.1 Introduction......Page 125
6.2.3 Mechanisms of Immobilization......Page 126
6.2.4.1 Stabilization of Hazardous Contaminants......Page 128
6.2.4.2 Stabilization of Fission Products......Page 130
6.2.5 Evaluation of Radiolytic Gas Generation......Page 131
6.2.6 Summary......Page 132
References......Page 133
6.3 Sulfur Polymer Cement (SPC)......Page 134
References......Page 141
6.4.1 Introduction......Page 143
6.4.2 Use of Envirostone™ at Los Alamos National Laboratory......Page 144
6.4.2.1 Free-Liquid Generation from Envirostone™......Page 145
6.4.3 Experience with Envirostone at Rocky Flats......Page 146
6.4.4 Additional Instances of Envirostone Use......Page 147
References......Page 148
6.5.1 Introduction......Page 150
6.5.3.1 Materials......Page 151
6.5.3.3 Curing......Page 154
6.5.4.1 Intrinsic Solubility......Page 155
6.5.4.2 Standard Leach Protocols......Page 156
References......Page 161
7.1 Introduction......Page 164
7.2.1 Introduction......Page 165
7.2.2 Effects of Inorganic Compounds on Cement Hydration......Page 167
7.2.3 Effects of Organic Compounds on Cement Hydration......Page 174
7.2.4 Other Effects......Page 175
7.3.1 Introduction......Page 176
7.3.2 Physical Encapsulation......Page 177
7.3.3 Precipitation......Page 178
7.3.4 Uptake by Cement Hydration Products......Page 180
7.4 Summary......Page 182
References......Page 183
Stabilization/ Solidification Additives......Page 190
8.2.1 Ph Control and Buffering......Page 191
8.2.2.1 Sulfides, Sulfur, and Organo-Sulfur Compounds......Page 192
8.2.2.2 Soluble Silicates and Rice Hull Ash......Page 193
8.2.2.6 Other Inorganic Complexing Agents......Page 194
8.2.3 Oxidation/Reduction......Page 195
8.2.4 Sorption and Ion Exchange......Page 197
8.2.4.3 Clinoptilolite and Other Zeolites......Page 198
8.2.4.4 Vermiculite and Other Sorbents......Page 199
8.4 Organic Stabilization......Page 201
8.5 Additives and Treatment Methods for OrganoMetallic and Complexed Compounds......Page 202
8.6 Processing and Anti-Inhibition Aids......Page 203
8.6.3 Water-Reducing Agents......Page 204
8.6.5 Additives that Increase Strength or Improve Other Physical Properties......Page 205
8.7 Multitalented or Multipurpose Reagents......Page 206
References......Page 207
9.1 Introduction......Page 212
9.2 Microstructural Characteristics of Cement Pastes and Cement-Based Waste Forms......Page 213
9.3 Analytical Techniques......Page 214
9.4 Microscopic Characterization of S/S Waste Forms......Page 215
9.5 Microchemistry......Page 219
9.5.2 Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy......Page 220
9.5.3 X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) Spectroscopy......Page 222
9.5.4 Thermal Analysis......Page 225
9.5.5 XRD......Page 227
9.5.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy......Page 229
9.6.1 Behavior of Chromium in a Simulated Waste Form......Page 231
9.6.2 Structural Characterization of a Solidified Synthetic Waste Form......Page 232
9.6.3 Structural Characterization of Field Cement- Solidified Contaminated Soil......Page 233
9.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 235
Acknowledgment......Page 236
References......Page 237
Leaching Processes and Evaluation Tests for Inorganic Constituent Release from Cement- Based Matrices......Page 242
10.1 Introduction......Page 243
10.2.1 Geochemical Control......Page 244
10.2.3.3 Dispersion......Page 245
10.3 Factors Influencing Contaminant Release......Page 246
10.3.1.1 Hydration Products......Page 247
10.3.1.2 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 248
10.3.2 Release Conditions......Page 249
10.3.2.2 Infiltration Rate......Page 250
10.3.2.3 Groundwater Composition......Page 251
10.3.2.5 Temperature......Page 253
10.3.3.1 Internal Stresses......Page 254
10.3.3.2 External Stresses......Page 255
10.4 Overview of Leaching Tests......Page 256
10.4.1 Leaching Test Applications......Page 257
10.4.2.1 Screening Tests......Page 258
10.4.2.2 Field Mimicking or Simulation Tests......Page 259
10.4.2.3 Intrinsic Property Tests......Page 260
10.4.3.1 Equilibrium Tests......Page 261
10.4.3.2 Mass-Transport Rate Tests......Page 268
10.4.4 Variables Affecting Leaching Test Results......Page 271
10.4.4.3 Particle-Size/Contact Time......Page 272
10.4.4.4 Liquid-to-Solid Ratio......Page 273
10.5.1 Equilibrium-Based Tests......Page 274
10.5.2 Mass-Transport Tests......Page 275
10.5.2.1 Diffusivity in Reactive Media......Page 276
10.5.2.2 Regression of Diffusivity from Leaching Data......Page 277
10.5.2.3 Changes in Mass-Transport Behavior......Page 278
10.6.1 Leachate-Controlled Monofill Example......Page 279
10.6.2 Uncontrolled Near-Surface Placement......Page 280
References......Page 281
Testing and Performance Criteria for Stabilized/Solidified Waste Forms......Page 294
11.1 Introduction......Page 295
11.2.1 Introduction......Page 296
11.2.2.1 Agitated Extraction Tests......Page 297
11.2.3 Dynamic Tests......Page 299
11.2.3.1 Serial Batch Tests......Page 300
11.3.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)......Page 301
11.3.3 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 302
11.4.2 Pulverization......Page 303
11.4.8 Moisture Content......Page 304
11.4.14 Heat of Hydration......Page 305
11.4.20 Modulus of Elasticity......Page 306
11.5.1 General......Page 307
11.5.2 Contaminant Leachability......Page 310
11.5.3 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)......Page 314
11.5.5 Other Durability Tests......Page 315
11.6.2 Integrated Evaluation Framework......Page 316
Tier 2A: Solubility and Release as a Function of pH......Page 317
11.6.3.1 Evaluation Framework......Page 318
11.6.3.2 Evaluation Approach......Page 319
11.7 Summary......Page 320
Acknowledgments......Page 321
References......Page 322
Quality Assurance/ Quality Control (QA/QC) for Waste Stabilization/ Solidification......Page 332
12.2.1 Quality Assurance......Page 333
12.2.3 Quality Control Plan......Page 334
12.3 Frequency and Statistic Evaluation of QA/QC Testing......Page 335
12.4 Quality Control Chart......Page 337
12.6 Treatability Studies......Page 339
12.7.1 QA/QC Plan for Field S/S Operation......Page 340
12.7.2.2 Wastes......Page 341
12.7.4.2 Content of Cement or Additives......Page 342
12.8 Testing Hardened Treated Waste Forms......Page 343
12.10 Early Failure Indicators and Adjustments to the Mix Design......Page 344
References......Page 345
Case Studies: Full-Scale Operations and Delivery Systems......Page 348
13.2 Chemical Scale-Up......Page 349
13.3 Delivery Systems......Page 350
13.3.1.1 Ex Situ Methods......Page 351
13.3.1.2 In Situ Methods......Page 353
13.3.2 Fixed Installations......Page 356
13.4 Case Studies......Page 358
13.4.1.2 Treatability Studies......Page 359
13.4.1.4 Operations......Page 360
13.4.2.1 Background and Purpose......Page 361
13.4.2.2 Treatability Studies......Page 362
13.4.2.4 Operations......Page 364
13.4.2.5 QC and Results......Page 365
13.4.3.1 Background and Purpose......Page 367
13.4.3.2 Treatability Studies......Page 368
13.4.3.3 Delivery System......Page 369
13.4.3.4 Operations......Page 370
13.4.4.1 Background and Purpose......Page 371
13.4.4.2 Saltstone Facility......Page 372
13.4.4.3 High-Level Waste (HLW) Tank Fill......Page 374
References......Page 376
A......Page 378
C......Page 379
D......Page 381
F......Page 382
I......Page 383
L......Page 384
M......Page 385
P......Page 386
Q......Page 387
S......Page 388
U......Page 390
Z......Page 391