Sport and Exercise Psychology: Theory and Application

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
1: Introduction: Sport and Exercise Psychology—Theory and Application
	1.1	 World Athletes of the Year?
	1.2	 Sport Psychology: Definition and Subject Area
		1.2.1	 Describing, Explaining, Predicting, and Changing
		1.2.2	 Central Definitions
	Side Story
	1.3	 Subdisciplines of Sport Psychology and Their Research Questions
		1.3.1	 Differentiation According to Theoretical Perspectives
		1.3.2	 Differentiation According to Fields of Application
	Side Story
	1.4	 A Selective History of Sport Psychology
	Side Story
	1.5	 Institutionalization of Sport Psychology
	References
I: Cognition
	2: Perception and Attention
		2.1	 Introduction
		Study Box
		2.2	 Perception
			Side Story
			2.2.1	 Peripheral Perception
			2.2.2	 Failures of Conscious Perception
			2.2.3	 Unconscious Perception
			2.2.4	 Perceptual Deceptions and Distortions
		Side Story
		Study Box
		2.3	 Attention
			2.3.1	 Selective Attention
			2.3.2	 Orienting of Attention
			2.3.3	 Divided Attention
				2.3.3.1	 Breadth of Attention
				2.3.3.2	 Internal/External Focus of Attention
			2.3.4	 Sustained Attention
		Study Box
		2.4	 Trainability of Perception and Attention in Sports
		Study Box
		References
	3: Learning and Memory in Sports
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 Fundamentals of the Psychology of Learning
			3.2.1	 Learning by Association
				3.2.1.1	 Classical Conditioning
				3.2.1.2	 Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning)
				3.2.1.3	 Learning of Action-Effect Relations
			3.2.2	 Observational Learning
			3.2.3	 Implicit Learning
		3.3	 Designing Teaching and Learning Processes in Sports
			3.3.1	 Learning Phases and Learning Processes
			3.3.2	 Instruction and Feedback
				3.3.2.1	 Instruction: Variables of Observational Learning
				3.3.2.2	 Instruction: Focus of Attention
				3.3.2.3	 Instruction: Movement Rules and Analogies
				3.3.2.4	 Feedback: Timing and Frequency
				3.3.2.5	 Feedback: Positive and Negative Valence
			3.3.3	 Practice Schedules
				3.3.3.1 Distributed and Massed Practice
				3.3.3.2	 Part Practice and Whole Practice
				3.3.3.3	 Practice Variability
			3.3.4	 Transfer of Learning
		3.4	 Fundamentals of Memory Psychology
			3.4.1	 Representation of Knowledge
			3.4.2	 Memory Systems
				3.4.2.1	 Sensory Memory (or Sensory Register)
				3.4.2.2	 Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)
				3.4.2.3	 Long-Term Memory
			3.4.3	 Memory Processes
				3.4.3.1	 Encoding
				3.4.3.2	 Retention
				3.4.3.3	 Consolidation
				3.4.3.4	 Retrieval
				3.4.3.5	 Forgetting
		3.5	 Representation of Motor Skills
			3.5.1	 Building Blocks of Complex Skills
				3.5.1.1	 Goal Representations and Effect Representations
				3.5.1.2	 Representation of Biomechanical Parameters
				3.5.1.3	 Basic Action Concepts (BACs)
			3.5.2	 Structures in Movement Representations
			3.5.3	 Measurement and Variability of Movement Representations
		References
	4: Neurocognition and Movement
		4.1	 Introduction
		Side Story
		4.2	 Movement Control
			Side Story
			4.2.1	 Hierarchically Organised Motor Control Instances
			Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) by TMS
			4.2.2	 Motor Cortex Areas
			4.2.3	 Cerebellum
				4.2.3.1	 Anatomy and Function of the Cerebellum
			4.2.4	 Basal Ganglia
				4.2.4.1	 Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
			4.2.5	 Brainstem and Spinal Cord
		Differentiation-Dedifferentiation Hypothesis
		4.3	 Brain Anatomy and Brain Functions in Different Age Ranges
			Side Story
			4.3.1	 Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
			Side Story
			4.3.2	 Brain Development in Old Age
		Side Story
		4.4	 Neuronal Plasticity
		Side Story
		4.5	 Physical Activity to Promote Cognition
			Reflection
			4.5.1	 Acute Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition
			Physical Frailty and Dementia
			4.5.2	 Chronic Effects of Physical Activity on Cognition
		Side Story
		4.6	 Multitasking
		Side Story
		References
	5: Judgment and Decision-Making
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Theoretical Background
			5.2.1	 Judgments
				Side Story
				5.2.1.1	 Brunswik’s Lens Model
			Side Story
			5.2.2	 Decision-Making
				Side Story
				5.2.2.1	 Expected Utility Theory
				Side Story
				5.2.2.2	 Heuristics
				Side Story
				5.2.2.3	 Fast and Slow Decisions
			Side Story
			5.2.3	 Conclusion
		5.3	 From Athletes to Officials: Who Makes Judgments and Decisions in Sports?
			5.3.1	 Athletes and Coaches
				5.3.1.1	 Sophomore Slump and Regression to the Mean
				5.3.1.2	 Passing Decisions and the Hot Hand
			Side Story
			5.3.2	 Officials
				5.3.2.1 Influence of Prior Knowledge
				Study Box
				5.3.2.2	 Compensation Decisions
				Side Story
				5.3.2.3	 Crowd Noise Effects
				Side Story
				5.3.2.4	 Assimilation and Contrast
				Study Box
				5.3.2.5	 Calibration
				5.3.2.6	 Offside
				5.3.2.7	 Conformity in Group Judgments
		5.4	 Optimization of Judgments and Decisions
		References
	6: Embodied Cognition
		6.1	 Introduction
		Side Story
		6.2	 Embodied Cognition Approaches: Theoretical Framework
		The Many Colors of “The Dress”
		6.3	 Movement and Cognition
			6.3.1	 Influence of Movement on Cognition
			Study Box
			6.3.2	 Influence of Cognition on Movement
		6.4	 Movement and Perception
			6.4.1	 Theoretical Background
			6.4.2	 Empirical Findings in Reference to Sports
			Study Box
			6.4.3	 Critique and Outlook
		6.5	 What Does Embodied Cognition Mean for Sport Psychology?
			6.5.1	 How Can Embodied Cognition Effects Be Specified?
			6.5.2	 How Can Embodied Cognition Effects Be Quantified?
			6.5.3	 Why Does Sport Psychology Need Embodied Cognition?
		References
II: Motivation
	7: Motivation and Goals in the Context of Sport and Movement
		7.1	 Definitions and Scope
			7.1.1	 Motivation
			7.1.2	 Incentives and Affect
			7.1.3	 Motivation as a Product of Person and Situation: P × S Scheme
			7.1.4	 Interaction of Desirability and Feasibility: Expectancy × Value
			7.1.5	 The Need for Motivation and Volition: The Rubicon Model of Action Phases
			7.1.6	 Goals and Goal Concepts
		7.2	 Performance-Motivated Actions and Goals in Sport
			7.2.1	 Achievement Goal Theory
			7.2.2	 Approach Versus Avoidance Goals
			7.2.3	 Questionnaires to Measure Goal Orientations in Sport
				7.2.3.1	 Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ-Sport)
				7.2.3.2	 Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)
		7.3	 Motivational Climate
			7.3.1	 Questionnaires to Measure Sport Motivational Climate
			7.3.2	 How Does One Change the Motivational Climate in Sports Groups? Motivational Climate Intervention
		7.4	 Dealing with Success and Failure: Attribution Theory
			7.4.1	 Self-Serving Attributional Bias
			7.4.2	 Team-Serving Attributional Bias
			7.4.3	 Attribution Training
		7.5	 How Can Motivation for Physical Activity and Sport Be Enhanced?
			7.5.1	 Goal Setting Training
			7.5.2	 Setting the Right Goals: Self-Concordance Model
			7.5.3	 Setting Team Goals
		7.6	 When Goals Are Unattainable
		7.7	 Recommendations for Practice
		References
	8: Intrinsic Motivation in the Context of Sports
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Theoretical Frameworks on Nature and Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation
			8.2.1	 Flow Theory
				8.2.1.1	 Characteristics of Flow Experience
				8.2.1.2	 Consequences of Flow Experience
				Side Story
				8.2.1.3	 Conditions of Flow Experience
			Side Story
			8.2.2	 Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
				8.2.2.1	 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
				Side Story
				8.2.2.2	 Basic Psychological Need Theory
				Autonomy Support by Coaches
				8.2.2.3	 Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
			8.2.3	 Self-Concordance Theory
			8.2.4	 Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic Motivation
		8.3	 Measuring Intrinsic Motivation
			8.3.1	 Free Choice Paradigm
			8.3.2	 Questionnaires Assessing Intrinsic Motivation
				8.3.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)
				8.3.2.2	 Sport Motivation Scale
				8.3.2.3	 Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS)
				8.3.2.4	 Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ)
		8.4	 Promoting Intrinsic Motivation in Sport
			8.4.1	 Strategies for Promoting Intrinsic Motivation
			8.4.2	 Focus: Promotion of Basic Need Satisfaction
			8.4.3	 Empowering Coaching™: Applying Theories Successfully for Practical Application
		References
	9: Implicit Motives in Sport and Exercise
		9.1	 Definitions and Basic Assumptions
		Side Story
		9.2	 Implicit Motives in Motivation Research
			Achievement Motive and Effort Mobilization
			9.2.1	 Implicit and Explicit Motives
			Implicit vs. Explicit Achievement Motive and Feedback
			9.2.2	 Measuring Implicit Motives
			9.2.3	 Developmental Aspects of Implicit and Explicit Motives
		9.3	 Biopsychological Approaches for Implicit Motivational Processes
			9.3.1	 Motivational Brain Areas
			Study on the Difference Between “Wanting” and “Liking” by Ikemoto and Panksepp (1996)
			9.3.2	 The Achievement Motive and Physiological Processes
			9.3.3	 The Affiliation Motive and Physiological Processes
			9.3.4	 The Power Motive and Physiological Processes
				9.3.4.1	 Chronic Health Effects of the Power Motive
		9.4	 Behavioral Correlates of Implicit Motives in Sport Science Research
			9.4.1	 Achievement Motive
			Implicit and Explicit Achievement Motive and Behavior in Sport (Wegner & Teubel, 2014)
			9.4.2	 Affiliation Motive
			9.4.3	 Power Motive
		9.5	 Implicit Motives and Interaction with Explicit Motives and Goals
			9.5.1	 Motive Incongruence
				9.5.1.1	 Mediation Processes Between Implicit and Explicit Motives
		9.6	 Implications for the Field of Sport and Physical Activity
		References
	10: Volition in Sport and Exercise
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Theoretical Embedding of Volition
			Side Story
			10.2.1 Rubicon Model of Action Phases
				10.2.1.1 Predecisional Phase
				Side Story
				10.2.1.2 Preactional Phase
				Study Box
				10.2.1.3 Actional Phase
				10.2.1.4 Postactional Phase
				10.2.1.5 Concluding Remarks
			10.2.2 Theory of Action Control
				10.2.2.1 State vs. Action Orientation
				10.2.2.2 Empirical Findings in Sport
				10.2.2.3 Concluding Remarks
			10.2.3 The Strength Model of Self-Control
				Study Box
				10.2.3.1 Performance Under Pressure
				10.2.3.2 Regular Physical Activity
				Side Story
				10.2.3.3 Concluding Remarks
		Study Box
		References
III: Emotion
	11: Emotions in Sport
		11.1 Introduction
		Case Study Box
		Side Story
		Case Study Box
		11.2 Universal Emotions and Culture: Darwin’s Observations on the Connection Between Emotions and Evolution
		11.3 Physiology of Emotions
		Side Story
		11.4 The Connection Between the Physiology and the Psychology of Emotions
			11.4.1 James-Lange Theory
			11.4.2 Cannon-Bard Theory
			11.4.3 Appraisal Theory (Lazarus-Schachter Theory)
		11.5 Functions of Emotions
			11.5.1 Motivation and Attention
			11.5.2 Cognition
			11.5.3 Social Functions of Emotions
		Side Story
		Study Box
		11.6 Emotions and Athletic Performance
		11.7 Emotion Regulation
		11.8 Emotional Intelligence
			11.8.1 Emotional Intelligence in Sport
			11.8.2 Training of EI in and Through Sport
		11.9 Measurement of Emotions and Emotional Intelligence
			11.9.1 Measurement of Emotions
				11.9.1.1 Inducing Emotions
				Study Box
				Side Story
				11.9.1.2 Measuring Induced States
			11.9.2 Measuring Emotional Intelligence
		References
	12: Anxiety in Sport
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Trigger of Anxiety in Sports
			12.2.1 Sport Psychological Approach
			12.2.2 Social-Psychological Approach
				12.2.2.1	 Audience Effects
				12.2.2.2	 Contingencies
				12.2.2.3	 Competition
				12.2.2.4	 Importance of the Event
		Experimental Comparison of the Effect of Pressure Conditions
		12.3 How Anxiety Arises in Sport
			12.3.1 Attention Processes
			12.3.2 Appraisal Processes
				12.3.2.1	 Transactional Stress Model
					Effect of Stressors in Sport
					Situational and Resource Appraisal in Sport
					Personal and Environmental Characteristics as Moderators of Anxiety in Competition
				12.3.2.2	 Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes
				12.3.2.3	 Social Evaluation Processes
		12.4 The Core: The Anxiety Response in Sport
			12.4.1 Experiential Component
			12.4.2 Physiological Component
			12.4.3 Behaviour Component
				12.4.3.1	 Expressive Behaviour
				12.4.3.2	 Information Processing
		Side Story
		12.5 Effects of Anxiety in Sport
			12.5.1 Anxiety and Athletic Performance
				12.5.1.1	 Drive
				12.5.1.2	 Inverted-U Hypothesis
				12.5.1.3	 Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
				12.5.1.4	 Catastrophe Theory
			12.5.2 Anxiety and Movement Control
				12.5.2.1	 Distraction
				12.5.2.2	 Movement Focused Attention
				12.5.2.3	 Environmental and Personal Characteristics as Moderators
			Mediation Versus Moderation
			The Self-Presentation Model Empirically Tested
			12.5.3 Other Effects of Anxiety in Sport
				12.5.3.1	 Physical Activity and Exercise
				12.5.3.2	 Risk and Safety Behaviour
		12.6 Managing Anxiety in Sport
			12.6.1 Coping with Anxiety
			12.6.2 Anxiety Regulation
				12.6.2.1	 Situation
				12.6.2.2	 Attention
				12.6.2.3	 Appraisal
				12.6.2.4	 Anxiety Response
		12.7 Regulation of Anxiety Through Sport
			12.7.1 Studies About the Efficacy of Sport on Anxiety
				12.7.1.1	 Reduction of Anxiety in Healthy Populations
				Similar Patterns of Change in Physiological and Mood Parameters as a Result of an Exercise Intervention
				12.7.1.2	 Sport, Physical Activity and Anxiety Disorders
			12.7.2 Implication for Practice
		References
IV: Personality and Development
	13: Person, Situation, and Person-Situation Interaction in Sports
		13.1	 Introduction
			13.1.1 States: Conception and Assessment
			Side Story
			13.1.2 Person: Conception and Assessment
				Side Story
				13.1.2.1	 Global Personality Traits
				13.1.2.2	 Specific Personality Traits
			13.1.3 Situation: Conception and Assessment
		13.2	 Effects of the Person and/or Effects of the Situation?
			13.2.1 Effects of the Person
				Side Story
				13.2.1.1	 Person Effects in Sport
			13.2.2 Effects of the Situation
				Three Classic Social Psychological Experiments Testing Situation Effects
				13.2.2.1	 Situation Effects in Sports
			13.2.3 Effects of the Person and Effects of the Situation
		Side Story
		13.3	 Interactionism
			Side Story
			13.3.1 Effects of the Interaction of Person and Situation
				13.3.1.1	 Moderating Effects of the Strength of a Situation
				13.3.1.2	 Moderating Effects of the Trait Relevance of the Situation
				Exemplary Studies
				13.3.1.3	 Situation-Specific Person Effects
				13.3.1.4	 Stable Situation Profiles: If… Then… Contingencies
		Side Story
		13.4	 Variability of Personality
			13.4.1 Consideration of Situations
			13.4.2 Situation Profiles and Interaction Effects
		13.5	 Challenges and Implications
			13.5.1 For Research
			13.5.2 For Practical Applications
		References
			Recommended Readings
	14: Personality Development Through Sport
		14.1	 Introduction
		Side Story
		Side Story
		14.2	 The Research Topic “Sport and Personality Development”
			14.2.1 The Concept of “Personality”
				14.2.1.1	 Trait Concepts
				14.2.1.2	 Self-Concept Approaches
			14.2.2 The Term “Sport”
			14.2.3 The Sport and Personality (Development) Relationship
		14.3	 Historical Development
			14.3.1 Trait Phase
			On the Heterogeneity of Classical Personality Studies in German Language Sport Science
			14.3.2 Post-trait Phase
		14.4	 Studies on Self-Concept Development Through Sport
			14.4.1 Self-Concept
			14.4.2 Sport-Related Self-Concept Interventions
			Bern Intervention Study on School Sport (BISS)
			14.4.3 Veridicality
		14.5	 Theoretical Considerations on the Topic of Personality Development Through Sport
		References
	15: Physical Activity Across the Life Span: Personality, Physical Activity, and Sedentary Behavior
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 Key Concepts and Terminology
		15.3	 Prevalence of Physical Activity, Inactivity, and Sedentary Behavior
		15.4	 Personality, Health, and Physical Activity
			15.4.1 Personality and Health
			15.4.2 Personality, Physical Activity, and Sedentary Behavior
				15.4.2.1	 Personality and Physical Activity
				15.4.2.2	 Personality and Sedentary Behavior
			15.4.3 Health Behavior as a Mediator Between Personality and Health
		Side Story
		The Role of Health Behavior for the Personality-Health Association
		15.5	 Explanations for the Personality-Physical Activity Relationship
		Personality, Participation Motives, Behavioral Regulation, and Physical Activity
		15.6	 Personality Traits in the Context of Social-Cognitive Models
			15.6.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
			15.6.2 Personality Dimensions as Moderators Within the Theory of Planned Behavior
				15.6.2.1	 Intention-Behavior Gap
		Side Story
		15.7	 Physical Activity Interventions Using Personality Traits
		15.8	 A Heuristic Model of Personality, Physical Activity Behavior, and Health Across the Life Span
		Side Story
		References
V: Social Processes
	16: Group Performance
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 What Accounts for a Group?
			16.2.1 Definition of a Group
			16.2.2 Different Types of Groups and Group Tasks
		16.3	 Theoretical Approaches to Groups and Group Performance
			16.3.1 Model of Small Group Development
			16.3.2 A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Sport Teams
		16.4	 Performance Gains and Losses in Groups
			Study Box
			16.4.1 Performance Losses in Groups: Social Loafing
			Study Box
			16.4.2 Performance Gains in Groups
				16.4.2.1	 The Köhler Effect
				Side Story
				16.4.2.2	 Social Compensation
			16.4.3 Theoretical Explanations for Performance Losses and Gains in Groups
				16.4.3.1	 Theoretical Explanations of Performance Losses
				16.4.3.2	 Theoretical Explanations of Performance Gains in Groups
				16.4.3.3	 The “Collective Effort Model”: Integration of Theoretical Approaches
		Study Box
		16.5	 Group-Related Phenomena Affecting Group Performance
			Side Story
			16.5.1 Motivational Climate
			Side Story
			16.5.2 Leadership Structure Within the Team
			16.5.3 Role Ambiguity
			Side Story
			16.5.4 Social Identity
			Side Story
			16.5.5 Identification with the Team
			16.5.6 Group Cohesion
			Side Story
			16.5.7 Collective Efficacy
			Digression
			16.5.8 Team Trust
		16.6	 Diagnostics of Performance-Relevant Group Processes
			16.6.1 Overview of Available Instruments
			16.6.2 Diagnosing the Needs of the Team
		References
	17: Social Influence of Sport Spectators
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Forms of Social Influence of Spectators
		17.3 Social Facilitation: Social Influence of Passive Spectators
		Study Box
		Study Box
		17.4 Home Advantage and Disadvantage: Social Influence of Active Spectators
		Study Box
		Side Story
		Side Story
		17.5 Final Remarks
		References
	18: Interaction and Communication
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Social Interaction
			18.2.1 Social Exchange Theories
			Side Story
			18.2.2 Social Interaction in Sport
			18.2.3 Coach-Athlete Interaction
		Study Box
		18.3 Basics Principles of Communication
		Side Story
		18.4 Communication in Competitive Sports
			18.4.1 Securing Understanding
			18.4.2 Control Strategies
			18.4.3 Conflict Regulation
			18.4.4 Moral Communication
			18.4.5 Participation
			18.4.6 Recommendations for the Transmitter
			18.4.7 Recommendations for Recipients and Feedback Providers
		References
	19: The Self in Sport and Exercise
		19.1	 Introduction
		19.2	 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
			19.2.1 Multidimensional and Hierarchical Self Structure
			19.2.2 Linking Sport and Exercise Participation and Self-Esteem
			How Strong is the Support for the Self-Enhancement Hypothesis?
			19.2.3 In Summary
		19.3	 Self-Presentation
		Side Story
		19.4	 Self-Conscious Emotions
			19.4.1 Emotions Specific to the Physical Self
			19.4.2 Anticipated and Experienced Emotions
		19.5	 A Cultural Perspective on the Self
		Cultural Differences in Child Rearing
		19.6	 Summary and Concluding Remarks
		References
VI: Competitive Sport
	20: Self-Regulation in Competitive Sports
		20.1	 The Function of Self-Regulation in Competitive Sports
		20.2	 Definition of Self-Regulation
		20.3	 Origins of the Psychological Concept of Self-Regulation
		20.4	 Self-Regulation Skills and Techniques
			20.4.1 Naïve Self-Regulation Techniques
			20.4.2 Self-Regulation and Self-Control: Two Fundamental Modes
		20.5	 Development of Self-Regulation: How to Develop and Train the Will Muscle
			Development of Self-Regulation Skills in Young Athletes
			20.5.1 Individual Differences in Self-Regulation
		20.6	 Applied Perspectives: Mental Skills Training
			20.6.1 Activation Regulation: The Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning
			20.6.2 Stress-Recovery Balance: Getting Physical and Psychological Rest
			20.6.3 Goal Setting as Self-Regulation: A Motivational Technique
			20.6.4 Imagination and Imagination Training: Programming Successful Performance
			20.6.5 Routines: Helping to Prepare and Focus
			20.6.6 Embodiment: How the Body Affects the Mind
			20.6.7 Self-Talk Regulation: Optimizing the Inner Dialogue
			20.6.8 Mindfulness Training: An Alternative Avenue to Strengthen Self-Regulation
			20.6.9 Music as a Self-Regulation Strategy: Marching to Your Own Rhythm
			20.6.10 Emotion Regulation: Prevention Is Better Than Cure
		Side Story
		20.7	 Concluding Remarks
		References
	21: Cognitive Training in Sports
		21.1 Sport Psychology in the Practice of Competitive Sports
		21.2 Dual Systems Theory by Kahneman
			Study Box
			Side Story
			21.2.1 Fast and Slow Thinking in Elite Sports
				21.2.1.1 Interplay of Fast and Slow Thinking
			21.2.2 Competence Conviction
		21.3 Methods of Cognitive Training
			21.3.1 Mental Training
				21.3.1.1 Mental Training to Optimize the Competence Conviction
				21.3.1.2 Mental Training to Optimize the Learning and Automation Process of Actions
				21.3.1.3 Practice
			21.3.2 Self-Talk Regulation
				21.3.2.1 Empirical Evidence
				21.3.2.2 Practice
			21.3.3 Gaming
				21.3.3.1 Effects of Gaming on Executive Functions
				21.3.3.2 Transfer
		Improving the Pass Decision Through 3D Object Tracking Training
		21.4 Conclusion
		References
	22: Applying Group Dynamics to Enhance Sport Teams
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Introducing Team Development
			Side Story
			22.2.1 Defining Team Development Interventions
			22.2.2 Reaching Further Afield to Understand Team Development
			22.2.3 Five Key Considerations When Developing Teams
				22.2.3.1	 When Will Team Development Be Implemented?
		22.3 Applying Models Describing How Groups Develop
		22.4 Conclusion
		References
	23: Talent Identification and Development in Sport
		23.1 Introduction
			23.1.1 Ability and Expertise
		23.2 Conceptual Approaches to Talent Research in Sport
		Side Story
		Side Story
		Study Box
		23.3 Frameworks of Talent Research
			23.3.1 Giftedness Research
				23.3.1.1	 Munich Model of Giftedness (MMG)
				23.3.1.2	 Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT)
			23.3.2 Expertise Research
				23.3.2.1	 Deliberate Practice
				23.3.2.2	 Deliberate Play
		23.4 Talent Identification
			23.4.1 Cognitive Performance Factors
				23.4.1.1	 Expert Performance Approach
				23.4.1.2	 Cognitive Component Skill Approach
			Study Box
			23.4.2 Personality-Related Factors
				23.4.2.1	 General Personality Traits
				23.4.2.2	 Specific Psychological States
				23.4.2.3	 Specific Psychological Personality Dispositions
		Study Box
		23.5 Talent Development
			23.5.1 Cognitive Performance Factors
				23.5.1.1	 Small-Sided Games
				23.5.1.2	 Video-Based Training
				23.5.1.3	 Discovery Learning
				23.5.1.4	 Pre-orientation Through Adequate Field of View Alignment (Visual Exploratory Activity)
			23.5.2 Personality-Related Factors
				23.5.2.1	 General Personality Traits
					Side Story
				23.5.2.2	 Specific Personality Dispositions and Competencies
		23.6 Conclusion and Further Discussion
			23.6.1 Talent Identification
			23.6.2 Talent Development
		References
	24: Sleep, Recovery and Rest
		24.1	 Introduction
		24.2	 Sleep
			24.2.1 Measuring Sleep in the Laboratory and in the Field
			24.2.2 Sleep Over the Life Span
			24.2.3 Sleep in Athletes
				24.2.3.1	 Sleep During Training Periods
				24.2.3.2	 Sleep During Competitions
			24.2.4 Behavioral Strategies to Promote Sleep
		24.3	 Recovery
			24.3.1 Conceptualization of Recovery
			24.3.2 The Interrelation of Recovery and Stress in Sport
			Rowing Over the Edge: Non-functional Overreaching and Overtraining Syndrome as Maladjustment: Diagnosis and Treatment from a Psychological Perspective
			24.3.3 Assessing and Monitoring Recovery and Stress States
			Monitoring the Athlete Training Response: Subjective Measures Trump Commonly Used Objective Measures
			24.3.4 Recovery Management in Sport
		Acute Effects of Psychological Relaxation Techniques Between Two Physical Tasks
		24.4	 Rest
			24.4.1 Delimiting the Focus on the Psychology of Rest in Athletes
				24.4.1.1	 Rest and Its Relations to Athlete Recovery
				24.4.1.2	 Rest and Its Relations to Acquiring Movement Skills
				24.4.1.3	 Rest and Its Relations to the Development of Expert Sports Performance
			24.4.2 The Eccles-Kazmier Model of the Psychology of Rest in Athletes
				24.4.2.1	 An Athlete’s Current Level of Rest and the Process of Resting
				24.4.2.2	 Implications of the Eccles-Kazmier Model for Theory
			24.4.3 Why Has Rest Been Overlooked?
			24.4.4 Implications for Practice
		Conclusions
		References
VII: Exercise and Health
	25: Models to Explain and Change Health Behavior and Physical Activity
		25.1	 Motivation Models
			25.1.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
			25.1.2 Health Belief Model
			25.1.3 Social-Cognitive Theory
		Side Story
		25.2	 Theories of Action Execution
		Action Plans and Coping Plans
		Study Box
		25.3	 Stage and Process Models
			25.3.1 Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change
			25.3.2 Health Action Process Approach
			25.3.3 Motivation-Volition Process Model
		25.4	 Dual-Process Theories of Physical Activity Behavior and Integrated Models of Health Behavior
			25.4.1 Affective-Reflective Theory of Physical Inactivity and Exercise
			25.4.2 The Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance Model
			25.4.3 Integrated Models of Health Behavior
		25.5	 General Conclusion
		Side Story
		References
	26: Physical Activity, Subjective Well-Being and Mental Health
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Psychological Dimensions of Health and Well-Being
			26.2.1 Basic Definitions of Health and Health Models
			Side Story
			Side Story
			26.2.2 Elements of Subjective Well-Being and Mental Health
				26.2.2.1	 Subjective Well-Being: Definition and Scope
				26.2.2.2	 Differentiation of Well-Being According to Temporal and Content-Related Aspects
				26.2.2.3	 Physical Well-Being
				26.2.2.4	 Social Well-Being
				26.2.2.5	 Hedonistic and Eudemonistic Concepts of Subjective Well-Being
		26.3 Effects of Physical Activity on Well-Being and Mental Health
			26.3.1 A Heuristic Framework
			26.3.2 Research Overview on the Effects of Physical Activity on Well-Being and Mental Health
				26.3.2.1	 Affective Well-Being
					Immediate Effects of Single Sessions of Structured Physical Exercise
					Effects of Multi-Week Exercise Programs
				Study Box
				26.3.2.2	 Additional Components of Well-Being and Ill-Being
					Life Satisfaction
					Physical Well-Being
					Social Well-Being
				26.3.2.3	 Physical Activity and Well-Being in Everyday Life
		26.4 Explanatory Approaches
			Study Box
			26.4.1 Dual-Mode Theory
			26.4.2 Hypofrontality Hypothesis
		26.5 Summary and Perspectives
		References
	27: Sports, Stress, and Health
		27.1 Introduction: Stress and Its Societal Relevance
		27.2 Key Terms
		27.3 Stress Models
			27.3.1 Reaction-Focused Models
			27.3.2 Stimulus-Focused Models
			27.3.3 Cognitive-Transactional Models
			27.3.4 The Reserve-Capacity Model
			27.3.5 Work-Related Models
		27.4 Physiological Stress Reactions
		27.5 Stress-Related Health Consequences
			27.5.1 Stress and Mortality
			27.5.2 Stress and Physical Health
			Side Story
			27.5.3 Stress and Psychological Health
		Side Story
		27.6 Stress Regulation and Sports
		27.7 Stress Regulation Through Sports
			27.7.1 Are Physically Active People Less Stressed, or Does Stress Lead to Reduced Physical Activity?
			Study Box: The Influence of Stress on People’s Physical Activity Behavior: A Meta-Analysis
			27.7.2 Can Physical Activity in Times of Stress Protect Against Negative Health Consequences?
			Side Story
			Side Story
			Study Box: Fitness-Related Stress Buffer Effects
			27.7.3 Can Physical Activity, Exercise, and Sports Prevent and Treat Burnout?
			27.7.4 Can Sports Play a Role in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?
		27.8 Stress Regulation in Performance Sports
			27.8.1 Causes of Stress in Elite Sports
			27.8.2 The Importance of Recovery in Elite Sports
			27.8.3 Burnout in Athletes
			27.8.4 Stress and Injury in Elite Sports
			27.8.5 Sports and Exercise Addiction
			27.8.6 Stress Management Training: Approaches for Everyday Life and Performance Sports
		References
	28: Exercise, Health Disorders, and Injuries
		28.1 Introduction
		Side Story
		28.2 Exercise as Intervention and Rehabilitation in Health Disorders
			28.2.1 Exercise as Intervention for Persons with Mental Disorders
				28.2.1.1 Depressive Disorders
				28.2.1.2 Anxiety Disorders
				28.2.1.3 Mental and Behavioral Disorders Due to Psychoactive Substance Use
				Study Box
				28.2.1.4 Potential Mechanisms
			28.2.2 Exercise for Persons with Physical Health Disorders
				28.2.2.1 Cardiovascular Diseases
				28.2.2.2 Oncological Diseases
				28.2.2.3 Chronic Respiratory Diseases
				28.2.2.4 Other Physical Health Disorders
		28.3 Exercise: Risks and Side Effects
			28.3.1 Exercise and Mental Risks
				28.3.1.1 Eating Disorders
				28.3.1.2 Exercise Dependence
				28.3.1.3 Substance Use
			28.3.2 Exercise and Physical Risks
				28.3.2.1 Injuries
				28.3.2.2 Sudden Cardiac Death
				28.3.2.3 Impaired Immune Function
				28.3.2.4 Female Athlete Triad
		28.4 Conclusion
		References
Index