Speech and voice science

Contents
Preface to the Third Edition
Acknowledgments
About the Contributor
About the Illustrator
1Introduction
	1.1 The Clinical Usefulnessof Speech and Voice Science
		Scenario 1
		Scenario 2
		Scenario 3
	1.2 Defining Speech Science
	1.3 Advice for Students onEffective Study Techniques
		Study as Though You AreHaving a Test Every Week
		Study With a Partner or Group
		Reach Beyond Memorization to Understand the Material
		Create Quizzes and Tests and Give Them to Yourself
		Stay Mindfully Present in Class
		Read Assignments Beforeand After Class
		Use the Study Aids
2 Describing andExplaining Motion
	2.1 Systems of Measurement
	2.2 Describing Motion: Speed, Velocity, Acceleration,and Deceleration
	2.3 Newton'sLaws Explain Motion
		The First Law of Motion
		The Second Law of Motion
		The Third Law of Motion
	2.4 Momentum and Energy
		Momentum
		Energy
			Energy, Work, and Power
			Kinetic and Potential Energy
	2.5 Three States of Matter
		Density
		Elasticity and Stiffness
		Pressure
			Units of Measurement of Pressure
	References
3Sound Waves
	3.1 Vibration
	3.2 The Nature of Waves
		Pulse Waves
		Longitudinal Pressure Waves
	3.3 Transfer of Energy in Waves
	3.4 Visualizing a Sound Wave
	3.5 Properties of Sound Waves
		Frequency
		Period
		Intensity
		Wavelength
			Speed of Sound
	3.6 Pure and Complex Tones
		Power Spectra
		Noise
	3.7 Behavior of Sound Waves
		Interference
		Boundaries
			Reflection
	3.8 Resonance
		Natural Resonant Frequency
		Standing Wave Patterns
			Rules Governing Standing Waves
		Forced Vibration
		Acoustic Resonators
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
4Breathing
	Clinical Case 1: Breath-Holding Speech
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Respiration
	4.3 Balloons or Boyle’s Law?
	4.4 Anatomy of the Lower Airway
		The Work of Muscles
			Agonist-Antagonist Pairs
			Muscles and Levers
		The Muscles of Breathing
	4.5 The Biomechanics of Breathing
		The Biomechanics ofTidal Breathing
		Lung Volumes and Capacities
		The Biomechanics of Forced Inhalation and Exhalation
	4.6 The Biomechanicsof Speech Breathing
		Relaxation Curve and Phonation
		Running Speech
			Phrase Breath Groups
		Adaptation of Speech Breathing to Variable Internal and External Demands
			Body Type
			Cognitive-Linguistic Variables
			Speech Breathing Personality
			Respiratory Demands
	4.7 The Work of Breathing
		Airway Resistance
		Laminar and Turbulent Airflow
		Elastic Resistance
		Viscosity
	4.8 Instrumentation for Measuring Breathing Kinematics
		Electromyography (EMG)
		Respiratory InductancePlethysmography
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
5 Phonation I:Basic Voice Science
	Clinical Case 2: RunningOut of Breath
	5.1 Overview
	5.2 Anatomy of the Larynx
		Structural Framework
		Laryngeal Membranes and Cavities
		Three Functions of the Larynx
		Laryngeal Muscles
			Intrinsic Muscles
			Extrinsic Muscles
		The Vocal Folds
			Structural Overview
			Lamina Propria
		Mechanical Layers
		Cricothyroid Joints
		Cricoarytenoid Joints
		Blood Supply to the Larynx and Lymphatic Drainage
	5.3 NeuralControl of Phonation
		Central Motor Control
		Peripheral Motor Neural Controland Brainstem Nuclei
		Peripheral Sensory Control and Brainstem Nuclei
	5.4 Theories of Voice Production
		The Bernoulli Effect
		The Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory
	5.5 Biomechanics ofVocal Fold Vibration
		Viscoelastic Component
		Vertical Phase Difference:The Mucosal Wave
		The Importance ofVocal Fold Closure
		Glottal Volume Velocity
		Laryngeal Airway Resistance
		Phonation Threshold Pressure
		Phonation Onset
	5.6 Biomechanical Stress-StrainProperties of Vocal Fold Tissues
	5.7 Physiology of Phonatory Control
		Fundamental Frequency (ƒo)
			Natural Resonance of the Vocal Folds
			Cover-Dominant Vibration
			Body Plus Cover Vibration
			Lung Pressure in the Regulation of ƒo
			Differential Control of ƒo:Evidence From EMG Data
		Control of Intensity
			Auditory Feedback of Controlof ƒo and Intensity
		Biomechanical Forces During Phonation
	5.8 Voice Quality
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
6 PhonationII:  Measurement andInstrumentation
	6.1 Measurement of ƒo and Intensity
		ƒo Measures
		Intensity Measures
		Voice Range Profile (VRP)
	6.2 Measurement ofPhonatory Aerodynamics
		Airflow and Lung Pressure
			Vocal Efficiency
			S/Z Ratio
			Maximum Phonation Time
			Phonation Quotient
	6.3 Instrumentation  for Exploringthe Dynamics of the Vocal Folds
		Stroboscopy
		High-Speed Laryngeal Imaging
		Videokymography (VKG)
		Photoglottography (PGG)
		Electroglottography (EGG)
		Open Quotient (OQ), Speed Quotient (SQ), andContact Quotient (CQ)
	6.4 Vocal Registers
		Modal Register
		Vocal Fry
		Falsetto
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
7 The Productionand Perceptionof Vowels
	Clinical Case 3: Accent Management
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Acoustic Theory ofSpeech Production
		Acoustic Characteristicsof the Source
		The Vocal Tract Transfer Function
		Acoustic Characteristics of Lip Radiation
		Resonance and Standing Waves
	7.3 Vowels
		Vocal Tract Constrictionsand Formant Frequencies
			First Formant Frequency (F1)
			Second Formant Frequency (F2)
			Third Formant Frequency (F3)
		The Traditional Vowel Quadrilateral
		Vowel Quality and Articulatory Posture
		Acoustic Representationof Vowel Quality
		Resonating Cavities ofthe Vocal Tract
		Vowel Formant Normative Data
		Tense-Lax Vowel Qualityand Inherent Duration
		Rhotacized Vowel Quality
		Diphthongs
		Intrinsic Pitch of Vowels
			Tongue Anatomy
			Understanding Tongue Movements
	7.4 The Vocal Tract as aRegulator of Intensity
		Harmonic Structure, EnergyLoss, and Near-Periodicity
		Revisiting the Voice Range Profile
			Singer’s Formant and Formant Tuning
			Speaker’s Formant
	7.5 Acoustic Filters
	7.6 Instrumentation forMeasuring Vocal Tract Acoustics
		Sound Spectrography
			Narrowband and Wideband Spectrograms
			Exploring Spectrograms
			Nearly Periodic Voice Source
			Voiceprints: Voice Scienceor Science Fiction?
		Quantitative Spectral Measures
			Long-Term Average Spectrum
			Harmonics to Noise Ratio
			Cepstral Measures
		Inverse Filtering
	7.7 Vocal Tract Imaging: CurrentResearch and Future Trends
		Conventional Radiography (x-rays)
		Computed Tomography (CT)
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
		Ultrasound
	Clinical Case 4: Ataxic Dysarthria
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
8 The Production and Perception ofConsonants
	Clinical Case 5: Facial Nerve Trauma
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Three Sources ofSpeech Sounds
		Coarticulation
	8.3 Phonetic Descriptionof Consonants
		Place of Articulation
		Manner of Articulation
	8.4 Acoustic Representationof Consonants
		Stops
			Stop Gap
			Release Burst
			Aspiration
			Voice Onset Time
			Formant Transitions
			Released and Unreleased Stops
			Glottal Stop
		Fricatives
		Approximants
			Glides (Semivowels)
			Liquids
		Nasals
			Vowel Nasalization
		Affricates
	8.5 Instrumentation and Measurement of Vocal Tract Aerodynamics
		Intraoral Air Pressure
		Nasal Airflow and Acoustics
			Nasal Airflow
			Nasalance
	8.6 Instrumentation for Measuring Articulation
		X-ray Microbeam
		Electromagnetic Midsagittal Articulography (EMMA)
		Optoelectronic Tracking
		Strain Gauges
		Electropalatography
	Clinical Case 6: Articulation Errors
	Recommended Internet Sitesfor Further Learning
	References
9Prosody
	Clinical Case 7: Parkinson’s Disease
	9.1 Introduction to Prosody
	9.2 Basic Building Blocks of Prosody
		Intonation (ƒo Contour)
		Timing (Duration and Juncture)
		Loudness (Intensity Contour)
	9.3 Syllabic Stress and Prominence
	9.4 Speech Rhythm
		Temporal Measurements of Rhythm
	9.5 InSummary of Prosody
	References
10 Theories and  Models of SpeechProduction
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Theories and Models
	10.3 Theoretical Issuesfor Consideration
		Degrees of Freedom
		Output Targets
		Motor Programs
		Dynamic Systems
		Serial Ordering and Sensory Feedback
		Spatiotemporal Organization
		Unit of Analysis
		Coarticulation
			Motor Planning: How Far Ahead?
			Frame Theory
			Hybrid Model
	10.4 InvestigationalConsiderations
		Speaking Task
		Perturbation Studies
		Rate
	10.5 InfluencesFrom Connectionist Models
	10.6 Language and Speech
	Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning
	References
11 Theories ofSpeech Perception
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 The Perceptionof Sound Waves
		Perception of Intensity
		Perception of Frequency
	11.3 Topics in Speech Perception
		Lack of Invariance
		Unit of Analysis Revisited
		Lack of Segmentation
		Perceptual Normalization
		Specialized Perception of Speech
			Duplex Perception
			The McGurk Effect
		Contextual Effect
	11.4 Theories of Speech Perception
		Motor Theory
		Direct-Realist Theory
		Native Language Magnet Theory
		Acoustic Landmarks andDistinctive Features
		TRACE
		The Cohort Theory
	11.5 What Babies Can TellUs About Perception
	Recommended Internet Sites for Further Learning
	References
12Instrumentation
	Donald Finan
	12.1 Introduction to Measurement
	12.2 Basic Principlesof Measurement
		Error in Measurement
		Transduction
		It’s Electric!
	12.3 Sensors for Capturing Speech
	12.4 Microphones
		Microphone Designs
		Microphone Transducer Types
		Microphone Performance Characteristics
			Directionality
			Frequency Response
			Sensitivity and Dynamic Range
			Adequate Microphone Performancefor Speech Analysis
	12.5 Amplification
		Amplifier Performance Characteristics
			Gain
			Frequency Response
			Dynamic Range
		Amplifier Compatibility
	12.6 Making the Connection
	12.7 Recording Environment
		Ambient Acoustic Noise
		Electromagnetic Interference
	12.8 Data Acquisition: Let’s Get Digital
		Sampling: Time Representation
		Quantization: Amplitude Representation
			Frequency-Based Error: Aliasing
			Amplitude-Based Error: QuantizationNoise and Peak Clipping
	12.9 Data Storage
	12.10 Balancing Cost, Complexity, and Accuracy in Digital Data Acquisition
	12.11 Best Practices for theUse of Instrumentation
		Sensor Performance and Use
		Preamplifier Performance and Use
		Data Acquisition SystemPerformance and Use
	12.12 Let’s Wrap This Thing Up!
	References
Appendix A. MeasurementConversions
Appendix B.Reading Passages
	Appendix C. Frequencies of the Musical Scale
Appendix D. The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet
Index