Soybeans: Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
ISBN 978-1893997646......Page 3
Table of Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
1.1 Introduction......Page 8
1.2 The Genus Glycine and its Immediate Allies......Page 9
1.3 The Taxonomic History of the Genus Glycine......Page 11
1.4 Geographical Origin of the Genus Glycine......Page 15
1.5 Domestication of the Soybean......Page 16
1.6 Dissemination of the Soybean......Page 17
1.7.1 Pre-Marco Polo......Page 19
1.7.2 Marco Polo Era (Thirteenth to Fifteenth Centurles CE)......Page 20
1.7.3 The Age of Discovery for the Soybean......Page 21
1.8 Modern Dissemination of Soybean Seed......Page 23
Conclusion......Page 28
References......Page 29
2.1 Soybean Production......Page 40
2.2.1 Qualitative Genetics......Page 49
2.2.2 Quantitative Genetics......Page 52
2.2.4 Molecular Genetics and Genomics......Page 53
2.3 Soybean Breeding......Page 54
2.3.2 Objectives......Page 55
2.3.3 Selection of Parents......Page 58
2.3.5 Pure Line Method......Page 59
2.3.6 Pedigree......Page 61
2.3.8 Mass Selection......Page 62
2.3.9 Single-Seed Descent (SSD)......Page 63
2.3.11 Backcross......Page 64
2.3.13 Use of Male Sterility in Soybean Breeding......Page 65
2.3.16 Use of Genetic Markers in Soybean Breeding......Page 66
Conclusion......Page 67
References......Page 68
3.2 Moisture Content......Page 74
3.2.2 Electronic Moisture Meters......Page 75
3.3 Soybean Harvesting......Page 76
3.3.1.1 Gathering Head......Page 77
3.3.1.2 Feederhouse......Page 79
3.3.1.3 Rotor/Cylinder and Concave......Page 80
3.3.1.4 Cleaning Shoe......Page 81
3.3.1.5 Other Combine Areas......Page 82
3.3.3 Loss Measurements and Summary of Combine Adjustments for Quality......Page 83
3.4 Soybean Drying......Page 84
3.4.2 Low-Temperature Drying......Page 85
3.4.4 Reconditioning Over-Dry Soybeans......Page 86
3.5.2 Conveying Soybeans......Page 89
3.5.2.1 Auger Conveyors......Page 91
3.5.2.4 En-Masse Conveyors......Page 93
3.6 Soybean Storage......Page 94
3.6.1 Moisture Migration......Page 95
3.6.4 Insect Problems with Stored Soybeans......Page 97
References......Page 98
4. Effect of Pests and Diseases on Soybean Quality......Page 100
4.1.1.1 Phomopsis Seed Decay......Page 101
4.1.1.2 Purple Seed Stain......Page 103
4.1.1.3 Sclerotinia Stem Rot......Page 104
4.1.1.4 Yeast Spot......Page 105
4.1.1.6 Mycotoxins......Page 106
4.1.2 Viruses......Page 107
4.1.2.1 Soybean Mosaic Virus (SMV)......Page 108
4.1.2.3 Tobacco Ringspot Virus (TRSV)......Page 109
4.2 Insect Pests......Page 110
Conclusion......Page 115
References......Page 116
5.1 Introduction......Page 124
5.2 Recent Trends in Soybean Production......Page 127
5.3 Soybean Industry in the United States......Page 129
5.3.1 Soybean Yield, Price, and Revenue Trends......Page 133
5.3.2 Pesticide Usage......Page 134
5.3.3 Cost of Production......Page 136
5.3.4 Operating Costs......Page 137
5.3.5 Nonoperating Costs......Page 139
5.3.6.1 Government Payments......Page 140
5.4.1 Soybean Meal......Page 142
5.4.2 Crush Margins......Page 143
5.4.3 Soybean Oil......Page 145
5.4.3.1 Biodiesel......Page 148
5.4.4 Research and Development......Page 151
Conclusion......Page 153
References......Page 156
6.1 Introduction......Page 158
6.2.2 Foreign Material......Page 159
6.2.3 Total-Damaged Soybeans......Page 160
6.2.5 Soybeans of other Colors......Page 161
6.2.8 Summary of FGIS Inspections for Soybeans (FGIS, 2004)......Page 162
6.3.1 Moisture Measurement Methods......Page 163
6.3.2 Desired Moisture Contents......Page 165
6.4 Germination and Seed Vigor......Page 166
6.4.2 Vigor Tests......Page 167
6.4.3 Effects of Impact Damage and Flooding on Seed Vigor......Page 168
6.5 Other Soybean Quality Factors......Page 169
6.5.1.1 Whole Soybeans and Seed Weight......Page 170
6.5.1.2 Seed-Coat Cracks......Page 171
6.5.1.3 Color and Morphological Properties......Page 172
6.5.1.4 Hilum Color......Page 173
6.5.2.1 Protein and Oil Contents......Page 174
6.5.2.2 Fatty Acids......Page 176
6.5.2.3 Amino Acids......Page 178
6.5.2.4 Tests for Protein......Page 183
6.5.2.5 Carbohydrates and Sugars......Page 185
6.5.2.6 Fiber......Page 187
6.5.2.7 Phosphorus......Page 188
6.5.2.8 Tocopherol and Isoflavones......Page 189
6.5.2.9 Mycotoxins......Page 192
6.5.3 Processability Factors......Page 193
Conclusion......Page 194
References......Page 195
7.1 Introduction......Page 200
7.2.1.2 Elongation and Monounsaturation......Page 203
7.2.2.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis......Page 206
7.3.1 Considerations of Fatty Acids in Oils for Food Use......Page 207
7.3.1.1 trans Fats......Page 208
7.3.1.2 Fatty Acid Modifications to Increase Soybean Oil Stability, Enhance Oil/Fat Function, and/or Improve Nutrition......Page 209
7.3.2 Breeding to Obtain Soybean Oil for Non-Edible Products......Page 211
7.3.3 Environmental Effects on Oil Composition......Page 212
7.4.1.2 Presence and Content of Sphingolipids......Page 213
7.4.2.1 Tocopherol and Tocotrienol Structures......Page 215
7.4.2.2 Presence and Contents of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols......Page 216
7.4.2.4 Effect of Tocopherol Levels on Soybean Oil Stability......Page 217
7.4.2.5 Accumulation and Distribution of Tocophrerols in the Seed......Page 218
7.4.3.1 Phytosterol Structures......Page 219
7.4.3.2 Presence and Contents of Phytosterols......Page 220
7.4.3.3 Effects of Sterols on Health......Page 222
7.5.1 Lipoxygenase Enzymes in Soybean Seed......Page 223
Conclusion......Page 225
References......Page 226
8.1.1 Seal Subcellular Structures......Page 236
8.1.3 Storage Proteins......Page 237
8.2 Glycinin......Page 238
8.3 beta-Conglycinin......Page 242
8.3.1 Structures......Page 244
8.3.2 Fractionation of Soybean Storage Proteins......Page 245
8.3.3 Thermal Stability......Page 247
8.3.4 Glycinin Thermal Behavior......Page 248
8.3.5 beta-Conglycinin Thermal Behavior......Page 251
8.3.6 Mixed Systems Thermal Behavior......Page 252
8.3.7 Flavor Binding......Page 254
8.3.8 Lipoxygenases......Page 257
8.3.9 Trypsin Inhibitors......Page 258
8.3.10 Bioactive Properties Associated with Soy Proteins......Page 260
References......Page 262
9.1 Introduction......Page 276
9.2.1.1 Low Molecular Weight Sugars......Page 277
9.2.1.2 Oligosaccharides......Page 278
9.2.2 Structural Carbohydrates......Page 279
9.2.2.1 Cotyledon Polysaccharides......Page 281
9.2.2.2 Soybean Hull Polysaccharides......Page 282
9.3 Soybean Carbohydrates as Related to Nutrition......Page 283
9.3.1.2 Oligosaccharides......Page 284
9.3.2 Structural Polysaccharides......Page 286
9.4.1 Environment and Genotype......Page 288
9.4.2 Processing Conditions......Page 289
9.4.3 Enzyme Treatment......Page 291
9.5 Functional Foods: Soy Oilgosaccharides and Soy Fiber......Page 294
Conclusion......Page 295
References......Page 296
10.1.2 Phytosterols......Page 304
10.1.3 Phospholipids (PLs)......Page 306
10.1.4 Sphingolipids (SLs)......Page 310
10.1.5 Carotenoids (Pro-Vitamin A)......Page 311
10.2.1 Trypsin Inhibitors (TI)......Page 312
10.2.2 Lectins......Page 314
10.2.3 Lunasin......Page 315
10.3 Carbohydrate Components......Page 316
10.4.1 Isoflavones and Total Phenolic Compounds......Page 317
10.4.2 Saponins......Page 319
10.4.3 Phytate......Page 322
10.4.4 Water-Soluble Vitamins and Minerals......Page 323
10.5.1 Effect of Seed Development on Content of Minor Components in Soybeans......Page 324
10.5.2 Effect of Processing on Content of Minor Components in Soybeans......Page 325
10.6 Composition Modification through Plant Breeding and Genetic Engineering......Page 327
References......Page 330
11.1 Introduction......Page 338
11.2.1 General Methods......Page 339
11.2.2 Protein versus Oil......Page 340
11.2.3 Recovery of Oil from Soybeans......Page 344
11.2.3.1 Seed Handling......Page 345
11.2.3.3 Soybean Storage......Page 348
11.2.3.5 Dehulling......Page 350
11.2.3.6 Hard Screw Pressing......Page 352
11.2.3.7 Direct Solvent Extraction......Page 356
11.2.4 Laboratory Simulation of Commercial Extraction......Page 368
11.2.5.2 Meal......Page 370
11.2.6 Alternative Solvents......Page 372
11.2.6.2 Propane......Page 374
11.3.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)......Page 375
11.3.3 Gas-Supported Screw Pressing (GSSP)......Page 377
11.3.4 Aqueous Processing......Page 378
References......Page 380
12.2 Degumming......Page 384
12.2.1 Water Degumming......Page 385
12.2.2 Acid-Degumming......Page 386
12.2.4 Enzymatic Degumming......Page 387
12.3 Refining......Page 388
12.4 Chemical (Caustic) Refining......Page 389
12.4.1 Short-Mix Caustic Refining......Page 391
12.4.2 Physical Refining......Page 392
12.4.3 Miscella Refining......Page 395
12.4.4 Silica Refining and Bleaching Modifications......Page 396
12.5 Bleaching......Page 397
12.5.1 Procedure......Page 398
12.5.3 Bleaching Agents and Dosage......Page 399
12.5.4 Bleaching Temperature Influence......Page 401
12.5.5 Bleaching Time Influence......Page 402
12.5.6 Adsorbent and/or Oil Moisture Influence......Page 403
12.5.7 Filtration Influence......Page 404
12.5.8 Bleaching By-Product......Page 405
12.6 Deodorization......Page 406
12.6.1 Principles of Deodorization......Page 407
12.6.2 Deodorization Systems......Page 410
12.7 Finished Oil Handling......Page 412
References......Page 413
13.1 Introduction......Page 416
13.2 Hydrogenation......Page 417
13.2.1 Hydrogenation Process Condition Variables......Page 419
13.2.2 Hydrogenation Systems......Page 422
13.2.3 Hydrogenated Basestock System......Page 423
13.2.4 Interesterification......Page 426
13.2.5 Random Chemical Interesterification......Page 428
13.2.6 Directed Chemical Interesterification......Page 429
13.2.7 Enzymatic Interesterification......Page 431
13.3 Fractionation......Page 433
13.4 Postbleaching......Page 434
13.5 Crystallization......Page 435
13.5.1 Plasticized Shortening Crystallization Process......Page 438
13.5.3 Margarine Crystallization......Page 439
13.5.4 Edible-Oil Flake Crystallization......Page 441
References......Page 443
14.1 Introduction......Page 448
14.2.1 Soymilk......Page 449
14.2.1.2 Modern Soymilk......Page 450
14.2.2 Tofu......Page 454
14.2.2.2 Factors Involved in Tofu-Making......Page 455
14.2.2.3 Varieties of Tofu......Page 459
14.2.3 Green Vegetable Soybeans......Page 460
14.2.4 Soybean Sprouts......Page 461
14.2.4.1 Yuba......Page 463
14.2.5 Okara......Page 464
14.2.6 Roasted or Cooked Soybeans......Page 465
14.3.1.1 Koji......Page 466
14.3.2 Fermented Soy Paste......Page 467
14.3.2.1 Preparation Method......Page 468
14.3.2.2 Processing Principles......Page 471
14.3.3.1 Preparation Method......Page 472
14.3.4 Japanese Natto......Page 474
14.3.4.1 Preparation Method......Page 475
14.3.4.2 Processing Principles......Page 476
14.3.5.1 Processing Method......Page 477
14.3.5.2 Processing Principles......Page 478
14.3.6 Fermented Soymilk......Page 479
14.3.7.1 Preparation Method......Page 480
14.3.8 Soy Nuggets......Page 481
14.3.8.2 Japanese Hamanatto......Page 482
References......Page 483
15. Food Uses for Soybean Oil and Alternatives to trans Fatty Acids in Foods......Page 490
15.1.1 Liquid Soybean Oil......Page 491
15.2 Changing the Fatty Acid Composition of Oils......Page 492
15.2.2 Plant Breeding......Page 493
15.3 Applications for Oils with Modified Fatty Acid Compositions......Page 494
15.3.2 Deep-Fat Frying......Page 495
15.4 Standards for Oils......Page 497
15.4.1.3 Oxidative Stability......Page 500
15.4.1.4 Frying Oils and Fried-Food Stability......Page 501
15.5 Minor Oil Constituents......Page 502
References......Page 503
16.1 Introduction......Page 506
16.2 Biodiesel History......Page 507
16.3 Fats and Oils......Page 508
16.4 The Transesterification Reaction......Page 510
16.5 Mechanism and Kinetics......Page 511
16.6 Transesterification of other Sources of Biodiesel......Page 514
16.8.1 Oil Extraction......Page 515
16.8.2 Reaction Systems......Page 516
16.8.4 Methanol Recovery......Page 517
16.8.6 Additives......Page 518
16.9.1 Fuel-Related Uses......Page 519
16.10 Specifications and Standards......Page 520
16.10.3 Oxidative Stability......Page 521
16.11 Emissions......Page 526
16.12 Energy Balance......Page 527
16.13 Glycerol Utilization......Page 529
References......Page 531
17.1 Introduction......Page 546
17.2 Early Soybean Uses in Industrial Biobased Products......Page 547
17.2.2 Early Biobased Product Uses for Soybean Oil......Page 548
17.2.3 Chemurgy Movement......Page 549
17.3.1.1 Background......Page 550
17.3.1.2 Markets......Page 551
17.3.1.3 Performance Properties......Page 552
17.3.1.4 Current Interests......Page 553
17.3.2.1 Background......Page 558
17.3.2.4 Current Interests......Page 560
17.3.3.1 Background......Page 563
17.3.3.3 Performance Properties......Page 564
17.3.3.4 Markets......Page 565
17.3.4.2 Performance Properties......Page 566
17.3.4.4 Current Interests......Page 567
17.3.5 Paper and Textile Sizings......Page 568
17.3.6.3 Fire-Fighting Foams......Page 569
17.4 Soybean Oil in Industrial Biobased Products......Page 570
17.4.1.2 Performance Properties......Page 571
17.4.1.3 Markets......Page 574
17.4.1.4 Current Interests......Page 575
17.4.2.1 Background......Page 576
17.4.2.2 Technology......Page 577
17.4.2.4 Markets......Page 578
17.4.3.1 Background......Page 579
17.4.3.2 Technology and Performance......Page 580
17.4.3.3 Markets......Page 585
17.4.4.1 Background......Page 586
17.4.4.2 Technology and Performance......Page 587
17.4.4.4 Current Interests......Page 590
17.4.5.2 Technology and Performance......Page 591
17.4.6.1 Background......Page 593
17.4.6.2 Surfactants, Soaps, and Detergents......Page 595
17.4.8.1 Home-Heathing Oils......Page 598
17.4.8.2 Leather and Textiles......Page 599
17.4.8.5 Dust Suppressants......Page 600
17.4.8.6 Herbicide and Insecticide Carriers......Page 601
References......Page 602
18.1 Introduction......Page 620
18.2 Soybean Products in Diets Fed to Poultry......Page 621
18.2.1.1 Protein Quality of Soybean Products......Page 622
18.2.1.4 Assessment of Protein Quality of Soybean Products......Page 623
18.2.2 Soybean Products as Energy Sources for Poultry......Page 625
18.2.3 Genetically Modified Soybean Products......Page 626
18.3.1.1 Nutrient and Energy Concentrations in Soy Products......Page 627
18.3.1.2 Amino Acid Digestibility of Soybean Proteins by Pigs......Page 629
18.3.1.3 Phosphorus Digestibility of Soybean Products by Pigs......Page 630
18.3.2.1 Soybean Meal in Swine Diets......Page 631
18.3.2.4 Full-Fat Soybeans in Swine Diets......Page 632
18.3.3 Conclusion on Soy Products in Diets Fed to Swine......Page 633
18.4.1 Soybean Products Used in Pet Foods......Page 634
18.4.2 Nutritional Characteristics of Soy Products Used in Pet Food......Page 635
18.4.3 Soybean Products as Protein Sources in Pet Diets......Page 636
18.4.4 Soybean Products as Fiber Sources in Pet Diets......Page 639
18.4.6 Physiological and Gastrointestinal Effects of Soy Products......Page 640
18.4.7 Conclusion on Usage of Soy Products in Pet-Food Diets......Page 641
18.5.1 Protein Digestion in Ruminant Animals......Page 642
18.5.2 Increasing the Bypass Proteins in Soybean Products......Page 644
18.5.3 Factors Affecting Degradability of Soybean Protein in the Rumen......Page 646
18.5.5 Feeding Soybean Hulls to Beef Cattle......Page 649
18.6 Soybean Products in Diets Fed to Dairy Cattle......Page 650
18.6.2 Soybean Meal in Diets Fed to Dairy Cattle......Page 652
18.6.3 Full-Fat Soybeans in Diets Fed to Dairy Cows......Page 654
18.6.4 Soybean Hulls in Diets Fed to Dairy Cows......Page 655
18.6.5 Soy Proteins in Milk Replacers for Young Calves......Page 656
Conclusion......Page 657
References......Page 658
19.1.1.1 Soy Protein Structure......Page 668
19.1.1.3 Soy Protein and Health......Page 670
19.1.2 Types of Products......Page 671
19.1.3.1 Flavor......Page 674
19.1.3.3 Early Food Uses......Page 675
19.2.1 Protein Content......Page 676
19.2.3 Antinutritional Factors......Page 677
19.2.4 Urease......Page 678
19.3 Processing Soybeans and Soy Protein Products......Page 680
19.4.1 Enzyme-Active Soy Flours......Page 681
19.4.2 Toasted Full-Fat Soy Flours and Grits......Page 682
19.4.3 Extruder-Prepared Full-Fat Soy Flours......Page 683
19.5 Extracted Flake Products......Page 686
19.5.2 Defatted Soy Flours and Grits......Page 687
19.5.3 Re-Fatted or Lecithinated Soy Flours......Page 689
19.5.4 Soy Protein Concentrates......Page 691
19.5.4.3 Hot-Water Leaching Process......Page 693
19.5.4.6 SPC Characteristics......Page 694
19.5.5.1 pH Extraction-Precipitation......Page 695
19.5.5.2 Fractionating Soy Proteins......Page 698
19.5.5.3 Membrane Processing......Page 702
19.5.5.4 Aqueous Extraction Processing......Page 704
19.5.5.7 Enzyme-Modified SPI......Page 705
19.5.5.8 Whipping Proteins......Page 706
19.5.7 Impact of Soybeans with Modified Compositions......Page 708
19.6.2 Soy Cotyledon Fiber......Page 710
19.7.2 Extruder-Texturized Products......Page 711
19.8.2 Selection of Soy Protein Preparations......Page 715
19.8.3.2 Restructured Meats......Page 718
19.8.3.4 Extruder-Texturized Soy Proteins......Page 719
19.8.5 Dairy and Beverage Applications......Page 720
Future Considerations......Page 721
References......Page 722
20.1 Introduction......Page 732
20.2.1 Fatty Acid and Nutrient Profile of Soybean Oil, Mid-/High-Oleic Soybean Oil, Partially Hydrogenated Soybean Oil, and Fully Hydrogenated Soybean Oil......Page 733
20.2.2 Fatty Acids and Risk of Chronic Disease......Page 735
20.2.2.1 Lipids and Lipoproteins......Page 738
20.2.2.3 Inflammation......Page 743
20.2.3 Fatty Acids and Cancer......Page 745
20.2.4 Fatty Acids, Diabetes, and Insulin Resistance......Page 747
20.3.1 Nutritional Aspects of Soy Protein......Page 748
20.3.2 Soy Protein and Risk of Chronic Disease......Page 750
20.3.2.1 Lipids and Lipoproteins......Page 751
20.3.2.2 Blood Pressure......Page 752
20.3.2.3 Vascular Function......Page 754
20.3.2.4 Inflammation......Page 755
20.3.3 Soy Protein and Hormone-Sensitive Conditions: Menopause, Cancer, and Bone Health......Page 756
20.3.3.3 Cancer and Tumor-Related Biomarkers......Page 757
20.3.3.4 Bone Endpoints......Page 758
20.3.4 Soy Protein, Diabetes, and Insulin Resistance......Page 759
Conclusion......Page 761
References......Page 763
21.1 Introduction......Page 780
21.2.1 Production and Yield......Page 781
21.3 Cost of Production......Page 786
21.3.2 Costs of Transportation......Page 789
21.3.3 Soybean Processing......Page 793
21.3.4 Brazil's Soybean Crushing Plants......Page 794
21.3.5 Crush Margin......Page 795
21.3.6 Trade......Page 798
Conclusion......Page 802
References......Page 804
Reviewers......Page 806
Contributors......Page 808
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