Solid State Electronic Devices

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 14
ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 18
1.1 Semiconductor Materials......Page 22
1.2.1 Periodic Structures......Page 24
1.2.2 Cubic Lattices......Page 26
1.2.3 Planes and Directions......Page 28
1.2.4 The Diamond Lattice......Page 30
1.3.1 Starting Materials......Page 33
1.3.2 Growth of Single-Crystal Ingots......Page 34
1.3.3 wafers......Page 36
1.3.4 Doping......Page 37
1.4 Epitaxial Growth......Page 38
1.4.1 Lattice-Matching in Epitaxial Growth......Page 39
1.4.2 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy......Page 41
1.4.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy......Page 43
1.5 Wave Propagation in Discrete, Periodic Structures......Page 45
2 ATOMS AND ELECTRONS......Page 53
2.1 Introduction to Physical Models......Page 54
2.2.1 The Photoelectric Effect......Page 55
2.2.2 Atomic Spectra......Page 57
2.3 The Bohr Model......Page 58
2.4.1 Probability and the Uncertainty Principle......Page 62
2.4.2 The Schrödinger wave Equation......Page 64
2.4.3 Potential Well Problem......Page 66
2.4.4 Tunneling......Page 69
2.5 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table......Page 70
2.5.1 The Hydrogen Atom......Page 71
2.5.2 The Periodic Table......Page 73
3.1 Bonding Forces and Energy Bands in Solids......Page 84
3.1.1 Bonding Forces in Solids......Page 85
3.1.2 Energy Bands......Page 87
3.1.3 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators......Page 90
3.1.4 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors......Page 91
3.1.5 Variation of Energy Bands with Alloy Composition......Page 93
3.2.1 Electrons and Holes......Page 95
3.2.2 Effective Mass......Page 100
3.2.3 Intrinsic Material......Page 104
3.2.4 Extrinsic Material......Page 105
3.2.5 Electrons and Holes in Quantum Wells......Page 108
3.3.1 The Fermi Level......Page 110
3.3.2 Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium......Page 113
3.3.3 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations......Page 118
3.3.4 Compensation and Space Charge Neutrality......Page 120
3.4.1 Conductivity and Mobility......Page 121
3.4.2 Drift and Resistance......Page 126
3.4.3 Effects of Temperature and Doping on Mobility......Page 127
3.4.5 The Hall Effect......Page 130
3.5 Invariance of the Fermi Level at Equilibrium......Page 132
4.1 Optical Absorption......Page 143
4.2 Luminescence......Page 146
4.2.1 Photoluminescence......Page 147
4.3 Carrier Lifetime and Photoconductivity......Page 149
4.3.1 Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes......Page 150
4.3.2 Indirect Recombination; Trapping......Page 152
4.3.3 Steady State Carrier Generation; Quasi-Fermi Levels......Page 155
4.3.4 Photoconductive Devices......Page 157
4.4 Diffusion of Carriers......Page 158
4.4.1 Diffusion Processes......Page 159
4.4.2 Diffusion and Drift of Carriers; Built-in Fields......Page 161
4.4.3 Diffusion and Recombination; The Continuity Equation......Page 164
4.4.4 Steady State Carrier Injection; Diffusion Length......Page 166
4.4.5 The Haynes–Shockley Experiment......Page 168
4.4.6 Gradients in the Quasi-Fermi Levels......Page 171
5.1 Fabrication of p-n Junctions......Page 180
5.1.1 Thermal Oxidation......Page 181
5.1.2 Diffusion......Page 182
5.1.3 Rapid Thermal Processing......Page 184
5.1.4 Ion Implantation......Page 185
5.1.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition (Cvd)......Page 188
5.1.6 Photolithography......Page 189
5.1.7 Etching......Page 192
5.1.8 Metallization......Page 194
5.2 Equilibrium Conditions......Page 195
5.2.1 The Contact Potential......Page 196
5.2.3 Space Charge at a Junction......Page 201
5.3.1 Qualitative Description of Current Flow at a Junction......Page 206
5.3.2 Carrier Injection......Page 210
5.3.3 Reverse Bias......Page 219
5.4 Reverse-Bias Breakdown......Page 221
5.4.1 Zener Breakdown......Page 222
5.4.2 Avalanche Breakdown......Page 223
5.4.3 Rectifiers......Page 226
5.4.4 The Breakdown Diode......Page 229
5.5.1 Time Variation of Stored Charge......Page 230
5.5.2 Reverse Recovery Transient......Page 233
5.5.4 Capacitance of p-n Junctions......Page 237
5.5.5 The Varactor Diode......Page 242
5.6 Deviations from the Simple Theory......Page 243
5.6.1 Effects of Contact Potential on Carrier Injection......Page 244
5.6.2 Recombination and Generation in the Transition Region......Page 246
5.6.3 Ohmic Losses......Page 248
5.6.4 Graded Junctions......Page 249
5.7.1 Schottky Barriers......Page 252
5.7.2 Rectifying Contacts......Page 254
5.7.3 Ohmic Contacts......Page 256
5.7.4 Typical Schottky Barriers......Page 258
5.8 Heterojunctions......Page 259
6 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS......Page 278
6.1.1 The Load Line......Page 279
6.1.2 Amplification and Switching......Page 280
6.2 The Junction FET......Page 281
6.2.1 Pinch-off and Saturation......Page 282
6.2.2 Gate Control......Page 284
6.2.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics......Page 286
6.3.1 The GaAs MESFET......Page 288
6.3.2 The High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT)......Page 289
6.3.3 Short Channel Effects......Page 291
6.4.1 Basic Operation and Fabrication......Page 292
6.4.2 The Ideal MOS Capacitor......Page 296
6.4.3 Effects of Real Surfaces......Page 307
6.4.4 Threshold Voltage......Page 310
6.4.5 MOS Capacitance–Voltage Analysis......Page 312
6.4.6 Time-Dependent Capacitance Measurements......Page 316
6.4.7 Current–Voltage Characteristics of MOS Gate Oxides......Page 317
6.5.1 Output Characteristics......Page 320
6.5.2 Transfer Characteristics......Page 323
6.5.3 Mobility Models......Page 326
6.5.4 Short Channel MOSFET I–V Characteristics......Page 328
6.5.5 Control of Threshold Voltage......Page 330
6.5.6 Substrate Bias Effects—the “body” effect......Page 333
6.5.7 Subthreshold Characteristics......Page 337
6.5.8 Equivalent Circuit for the MOSFET......Page 339
6.5.9 MOSFET Scaling and Hot Electron Effects......Page 342
6.5.10 Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering......Page 346
6.5.11 Short Channel Effect and Narrow width Effect......Page 348
6.5.12 Gate-Induced Drain Leakage......Page 350
6.6.1 Metal Gate-High-k......Page 351
6.6.2 Enhanced Channel Mobility Materials and Strained Si FETs......Page 352
6.6.3 SOI MOSFETs and FinFETs......Page 354
7.1 Fundamentals of BJT Operation......Page 369
7.2 Amplification with BJTs......Page 373
7.3 BJT Fabrication......Page 376
7.4 Minority Carrier Distributions and Terminal Currents......Page 379
7.4.1 Solution of the Diffusion Equation in the Base Region......Page 380
7.4.2 Evaluation of the Terminal Currents......Page 382
7.4.3 Approximations of the Terminal Currents......Page 385
7.4.4 Current Transfer Ratio......Page 387
7.5 Generalized Biasing......Page 388
7.5.1 The Coupled-Diode Model......Page 389
7.5.2 Charge Control Analysis......Page 394
7.6 Switching......Page 396
7.6.1 Cutoff......Page 397
7.6.2 Saturation......Page 398
7.6.3 The Switching Cycle......Page 399
7.6.4 Specifications for Switching Transistors......Page 400
7.7 Other Important Effects......Page 401
7.7.1 Drift in the Base Region......Page 402
7.7.2 Base Narrowing......Page 403
7.7.3 Avalanche Breakdown......Page 404
7.7.4 Injection Level; Thermal Effects......Page 406
7.7.5 Base Resistance and Emitter Crowding......Page 407
7.7.6 Gummel–Poon Model......Page 409
7.7.7 Kirk Effect......Page 412
7.8.1 Capacitance and Charging Times......Page 415
7.8.2 Transit Time Effects......Page 418
7.8.4 High-Frequency Transistors......Page 419
7.9 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors......Page 421
8.1 Photodiodes......Page 431
8.1.1 Current and Voltage in an Illuminated Junction......Page 432
8.1.2 Solar Cells......Page 435
8.1.3 Photodetectors......Page 438
8.1.4 Gain, Bandwidth, and Signal-to-noise Ratio of Photodetectors......Page 440
8.2 Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 443
8.2.1 Light-Emitting Materials......Page 444
8.2.2 Fiber-Optic Communications......Page 448
8.3 Lasers......Page 451
8.4 Semiconductor Lasers......Page 455
8.4.1 Population Inversion at a Junction......Page 456
8.4.2 Emission Spectra for p-n Junction Lasers......Page 458
8.4.3 The Basic Semiconductor Laser......Page 459
8.4.4 Heterojunction Lasers......Page 460
8.4.5 Materials for Semiconductor Lasers......Page 463
8.4.6 Quantum Cascade Lasers......Page 465
9 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS......Page 473
9.1.1 Advantages of Integration......Page 474
9.1.2 Types of Integrated Circuits......Page 476
9.2 Evolution of Integrated Circuits......Page 477
9.3.1 CMOS Process Integration......Page 480
9.3.2 Integration of Other Circuit Elements......Page 495
9.4 Charge Transfer Devices......Page 501
9.4.1 Dynamic Effects in MOS Capacitors......Page 502
9.4.2 The Basic CCD......Page 503
9.4.3 Improvements on the Basic Structure......Page 504
9.4.4 Applications of CCDs......Page 505
9.5 Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)......Page 506
9.5.1 Logic Devices......Page 508
9.5.2 Semiconductor Memories......Page 518
9.6 Testing, Bonding, and Packaging......Page 531
9.6.2 Wire Bonding......Page 532
9.6.4 Packaging......Page 536
10.1.1 Degenerate Semiconductors......Page 542
10.2 The IMPATT Diode......Page 546
10.3.1 The Transferred-Electron Mechanism......Page 549
10.3.2 Formation and Drift of Space Charge Domains......Page 552
10.4.1 Basic Structure......Page 554
10.4.2 The Two-Transistor Analogy......Page 555
10.4.3 Variation of a with Injection......Page 556
10.4.4 Forward-Blocking State......Page 557
10.4.5 Conducting State......Page 558
10.4.6 Triggering Mechanisms......Page 559
10.5 The Semiconductor-Controlled Rectifier......Page 560
10.5.1 Turning off the SCR......Page 561
10.6 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor......Page 562
10.7.1 Zero-Dimensional Quantum Dots......Page 565
10.7.2 One-Dimensional Quantum Wires......Page 567
10.7.3 Two-Dimensional Layered Crystals......Page 568
10.7.4 Spintronic Memory......Page 569
10.7.5 Nanoelectronic Resistive Memory......Page 571
I. Definitions of Commonly Used Symbols......Page 576
II. Physical Constants and Conversion Factors......Page 580
III. Properties of Semiconductor Materials......Page 581
IV. Derivation of the Density of States in the Conduction Band......Page 582
V. Derivation of Fermi–Dirac Statistics......Page 587
VI. Dry and Wet Thermal Oxide Thickness Grown on Si (100) as a Function of Time and Temperature......Page 590
VII. Solid Solubilities of Impurities in Si......Page 592
VIII. Diffusivities of Dopants in Si and SiO[sub(2)]......Page 593
IX. Projected Range and Straggle as Function of Implant Energy in Si......Page 595
ANSWERS TO SELECTED SELF QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 597
B......Page 601
C......Page 603
D......Page 604
E......Page 605
G......Page 606
I......Page 607
J......Page 608
M......Page 609
P......Page 611
R......Page 613
S......Page 614
T......Page 615
Z......Page 616