Solar Technologies for Buildings

Solar Technologies for Buildings......Page 1
Front Matter......Page 2
Preface......Page 4
Abbreviations in the Text......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
1.1 Energy Consumption of Buildings......Page 12
1.1.1 Residential Buildings......Page 13
1.1.2 Office and Administrative Buildings......Page 15
1.1.3 Air Conditioning......Page 17
1.2.1 Active Solar Energy Use for Electricity, Heating and Cooling......Page 20
1.2.2 Meeting Heating Energy Requirements by Passive Solar Energy Use......Page 23
2.1.1 Power and Spectral Distribution of Solar Irradiance......Page 24
2.1.2 Sun-Earth Geometry......Page 27
2.1.2.1 Equator Coordinates......Page 28
2.1.2.2 Horizon Coordinates......Page 31
2.1.2.3 Sun-Position Diagrams......Page 33
2.2 The Passage of Rays through the Atmosphere......Page 35
2.3 Statistical Production of Hourly Irradiance Data Records......Page 37
2.3.1 Daily Average Values from Monthly Average Values......Page 38
2.3.2 Hourly Average Values from Daily Average Values......Page 42
2.4.1 Direct and Diffuse Irradiance......Page 45
2.4.2.1 An Isotropic Diffuse Irradiance Model......Page 46
2.4.2.2 Diffuse Irradiance Model Based on Perez......Page 47
2.5 Shading......Page 50
3.1.1 Innovations......Page 56
3.1.2 System Overview......Page 57
3.1.3.2 Flat Plate Collectors......Page 58
3.1.3.4 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors......Page 59
3.1.4.1 The Solar Circuit and Hydraulics......Page 60
3.1.4.2 Heat Storage......Page 66
3.1.4.3 Piping and Circulation Losses......Page 71
3.1.5 System Technology for Heating Support......Page 72
3.1.6 Large Solar Plants for Heating Drinking Water with Short-Term Stores......Page 74
3.1.6.1 Design of Large Solar Plants......Page 77
3.1.7 Solar District Heating......Page 79
3.1.8 Costs and Economy......Page 82
3.1.9 Operational Experiences and Relevant Standards......Page 84
3.1.10 Efficiency Calculation of Thermal Collectors......Page 85
3.1.10.1 Temperature Distribution of the Absorber......Page 86
3.1.10.3 Heat Dissipation Factor F_R......Page 90
3.1.10.4 Heat Losses of Thermal Collectors......Page 94
3.1.10.5 Optical Characteristics of Transparent Covers and Absorber Materials......Page 103
3.1.11 Storage Modelling......Page 108
3.2 Solar Air Collectors......Page 114
3.2.1 System Engineering......Page 116
3.2.2.1 Temperature-Dependent Material Properties of Air......Page 118
3.2.2.2 Energy Balance and Collector Efficiency Factor......Page 119
3.2.2.3 Convective Heat Transfer in Air Collectors......Page 120
3.2.2.4 Thermal Efficiency of Air Collectors......Page 128
3.2.3.1 Collector Pressure Losses......Page 131
3.2.3.2 Air Duct Systems......Page 132
4. Solar Cooling......Page 134
4.1.1 Introduction to the Technology......Page 136
4.1.3 Costs......Page 139
4.1.4.1 Technology of Sorption Wheels......Page 140
4.1.4.2 Air-Status Calculations......Page 141
4.1.4.3 Dehumidifying Potential of Sorption Materials......Page 143
4.1.4.4 Calculation of the Sorption Isotherms and Isosteres of Silica Gel......Page 146
4.1.4.5 Calculation of the Dehumidifying Performance of a Sorption Rotor......Page 151
4.1.5.1 Recuperators......Page 154
4.1.5.2 Regenerative Heat Exchangers......Page 159
4.1.6 Humidifier Technology......Page 163
4.1.7.2 Regeneration Temperature and Humidity......Page 164
4.1.7.3 Calculation of Supply Air Status with Different Climatic Boundary Conditions......Page 165
4.1.7.4 Limits and Application Possibilities of Open Sorption......Page 166
4.1.8.1 Usable Cooling Power of Open Sorption......Page 167
4.1.8.2 Coefficients of Performance and Primary Energy Consumption......Page 169
4.2.1 Technology and Areas of Application......Page 173
4.2.3 Operational Principle......Page 174
4.2.4 Energy Balances and Pressure Conditions......Page 176
4.2.4.1 Evaporator......Page 177
4.2.4.2 Condenser......Page 179
4.2.4.3 The Adsorption Process......Page 180
4.2.4.5 The Desorption Process......Page 183
4.2.4.6 Cooling Phase......Page 185
4.2.5 Coefficients of Performance......Page 186
4.3 Absorption Cooling Technology......Page 188
4.3.1 The Absorption Cooling Process and its Components......Page 189
4.3.1.1 Double-Lift Absorption Cooling Process......Page 192
4.3.1.2 Evaporator and Condenser......Page 193
4.3.1.3 Absorber......Page 194
4.3.2.1 Vapour Pressure Curves of Material Pairs......Page 196
4.3.3 Refrigerant Vapour Concentration......Page 200
4.3.4.1 Ideal Performance Figures......Page 201
4.3.4.2 Real Performance Figures and Enthalpy Balances......Page 202
4.3.5 Absorption Technology and Solar Plants......Page 211
5.1 Structure of Grid-Connected Systems......Page 212
5.3 Module Technology......Page 214
5.4 Building Integration and Costs......Page 215
5.5 Energy Production and the Performance Ratio of PV Systems......Page 216
5.5.1 Energy Amortisation Times......Page 217
5.6 Physical Fundamentals of Solar Electricity Production......Page 218
5.7.1 Characteristic Values and Efficiency......Page 220
5.7.2 Curve Fittings to the Current-Voltage Characteristic......Page 221
5.7.2.1 Parameter Adjustment from Module Data Sheets......Page 227
5.7.2.2 Full Parameter Set Calculation......Page 231
5.7.2.3 Simple Explicit Model for System Design......Page 232
5.7.3 I-V Characteristic Addition and Generator Interconnecting......Page 234
5.8.1 Bypass Diodes and Backwards Characteristics of Solar Cells......Page 236
5.9 Simple Temperature Model for PV Modules......Page 239
5.10.1.1 Cable Sizing......Page 242
5.10.1.3 String Diodes and Short-Circuit Protection......Page 243
5.10.2.1 Operational Principle......Page 245
5.10.2.3 Inverter Efficiencies......Page 246
5.10.2.4 Power Sizing of Inverters......Page 249
6. Thermal Analysis of Building-Integrated Solar Components......Page 254
6.1 Empirical Thermal Model of Building-Integrated Photovoltaics......Page 255
6.2 Energy Balance and Stationary Thermal Model of Ventilated Double Facades......Page 257
6.2.1 Heat Transfer Coefficients for the Interior and Facade Air Gap......Page 261
6.3 Building-Integrated Solar Components (U- and g-Values)......Page 265
6.4 Warm-Air Generation by Photovoltaic Facades......Page 268
7.1 Passive Solar Use by Glazings......Page 271
7.1.1 Total Energy Transmittance of Glazings......Page 272
7.1.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients of Windows......Page 274
7.2 Transparent Thermal Insulation......Page 276
7.2.1 Operational Principle......Page 277
7.2.2.1 Construction Principles of TWD Systems......Page 281
7.3 Heat Storage by Interior Building Elements......Page 282
7.3.1 Component Temperatures for Sudden Temperature Increases......Page 285
7.3.2 Periodically Variable Temperatures......Page 292
7.3.3 Influence of Solar Irradiance......Page 297
8.1 Introduction to Lighting and Daylighting Technology......Page 299
8.1.1 Daylighting of Interior Spaces......Page 300
8.2 Solar Irradiance and Light Flux......Page 302
8.2.2 Photometric Radiation Equivalent......Page 303
8.2.3 Artificial Light Sources......Page 305
8.3 Luminance and Illuminance......Page 306
8.3.1 Luminance and Adaptation of the Eye......Page 310
8.3.2 Distribution of the Luminous Intensity of Artificial Light Sources......Page 311
8.3.3 Units and Definitions......Page 314
8.4 Sky Luminous Intensity Models......Page 315
8.5 Light Measurements......Page 318
8.6 Daylight Distribution in Interior Spaces......Page 319
8.6.1 Calculation of Daylight Coefficients......Page 322
References......Page 327
B......Page 331
C......Page 332
E......Page 333
F......Page 334
H......Page 335
L......Page 336
O......Page 337
R......Page 338
S......Page 339
T......Page 340
Z......Page 341