Solar PV Power: Design, Manufacturing and Applications from Sand to Systems

Cover
Front-Matter_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Front matter
Copyright_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Copyright
Dedication_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Dedication
About-the-authors_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	About the authors
		Rabindra Satpathy
		Affiliations and expertise
		Venkateswarlu Pamuru
		Affiliations and expertise
Foreword_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Foreword
Acknowledgments_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Acknowledgments
Contents
Chapter-1---Manufacturing-of-polysilicon_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Manufacturing of polysilicon
		Introduction
		Quartz-the input for polysilicon production
			Specifications/requirements of quartz
			Quartz resources, processing, and quantity required for polysilicon production
			Quartz purification, sources of availability and price
				Crushing
				Attrition scrubbing
				Magnetic separation
				Froth flotation
		Polysilicon-basic manufacturing processes
			Specifications/requirements of polysilicon
			The process from quartz to metallurgical-grade silicon
			Siemens process of TCS production-purification
			Siemens process
			TCS production technology
				Direct chlorination
				Hydrochlorination
				Closed loop hybrid Siemens process
			Purification of TCS
			Why Siemens reactor-based polysilicon is the most adopted
			Siemens process by CVD
		Alternate methods of polysilicon production
			Upgraded metallurgical-grade process
			Fluidized bed reactors and FBR process
			Union carbide process
			The following are the major advantages of silane as a silicon source gas
			The following are the major disadvantages of silane compared to TCS
		Global polysilicon manufacturing scenario
		References
Chapter-2---Silicon-crystal-growth-process_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Silicon crystal growth process
		Specification/requirement of ingots
		Process of making ingots (CZ and float zone method)
			Crystal growth by Czochralski method
			Parts of the crystal growth puller
			Charge preparation
			Adding dopant to charge
			Meltdown
			Seeding
			Starting of crystal growth
			Necking process
			Crown and shoulder of the crystal
			Body of the crystal
			Coning and tail formation
			Weighing of the as-grown crystal
			Cropping of top and tail
			Shaping of as-grown crystal
				Crystal growth with the float zone method
		Process of multicrystalline Si ingot casting
			Charge preparation
			Adding dopant to charge
			Growth process
			Annealing and cooling
		Equipment used for ingot manufacturing
		Quality testing and reliability
		Manufacturers of Si ingots in the world
		Technology trend of ingots
		References
Chapter-3---Silicon-wafer-manufacturing-process_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Silicon wafer manufacturing process
		Specification/requirement of wafers
		Process of wafer making
		Slicing process
			Ingot slicing using annular saw or ID saw
			Ingot slicing using wire saw-loose abrasive slurry process
				Ingot/brick weight checking
				Ingot preparation and gluing
				Ingot loading and stabilization
				Cutting process
				Wafer cleaning
			Ingot slicing using diamond wire saw process
				Multisilicon wafer production-process steps
				Monosilicon wafer production-process steps
			Quality testing and reliability
			Equipment used for silicon wafer manufacturing
			Manufacturers of silicon wafers
			Technology trend and pricing analysis of wafers
		Direct wafer process (DWP)
		Kerf loss wafer process by epitaxy
		What is the new trend in wafer manufacturing?
		References
Chapter-4---Making-of-crystalline-silicon-solar-cells_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Making of crystalline silicon solar cells
		Introduction
		Basics of solar cell/physics of solar cell
			Light absorption and generation of charge carriers
			Recombination of charge carriers and lifetime
			Separation of the light-generated charge carriers
		Charge carrier separation
		Diffusion
		Solar cell I-V characteristics
		Resistance effect
		Loss mechanisms
			Specifications of the solar cell
			Manufacturing process of solar cell
				Wafer sorting inspection
				Saw damage removal and texturization
					Alkaline etching
					Acidic etching
					Equipment used for etching and the suppliers
				Doping of silicon material
					Quartz tube diffusion for P-type wafer
					Phosphoric acid spray
					Ion implantation
				Etching of phosphosilicate glass (PSG)
				Edge isolation
					Plasma etching
					Wet chemical etching
					Laser grooving
				Antireflection coating
					Sputtering technique
					PECVD of silicon nitride
				Contact making
				Testing and sorting of solar cells
			P-type vs N-type solar cells
			PERC/PERL cells and the manufacturing process
		Basics of passivation
			Bifacial solar cells and the manufacturing process
		Key drivers for bifacial solar cells/modules
			Advanced high efficiency cells and the manufacturing process
				IBC solar cell
				TOPCon solar cell
				HJT solar cells
		Advantages
		Process flow of HJT
		Equipment used for advanced solar cell manufacturing
		Manufacturers of silicon solar cells and technology trends
		References
Chapter-5---Manufacturing-of-crystalline-silicon-solar-PV-_2021_Solar-PV-Pow
	Manufacturing of crystalline silicon solar PV modules
		Introduction
		Design of a solar PV module
		Bypass diodes
		Cell to module loss (CTM)
			Specifications/requirements of solar PV modules
		Dimensions
		Weight
		Cells
		Cell dimensions
		Glass
		Back sheet
		Encapsulation
		Frame
		Cable and connectors
		Junction box
		Bypass diodes
		Electrical data
		NOCT/NMOT
		PTC rating
		Power tolerance
		Module efficiency and cell efficiency
		Temperature coefficients
		Maximum system voltage
		Maximum series fuse rating
		Design load
		Maximum wind speed
		Fire safety class
		Warranty
			Bill of materials of solar PV modules and their requirements
			Superstrate
			Antireflection-coated (ARC) glass
			Market players
				Outline placeholder
					Encapsulant
			Requirements for encapsulation materials
			Different types of encapsulants
			PVB
			Silicone adhesive
			Thermoplastic silicone elastomers (TPSEs)
			Ionomers
			EVA
			Solar encapsulant market competitive landscape
			Polyolefin elastomers (POE)
				Outline placeholder
					Solar cell
					Substrate
			Outer (air) side layer
			Middle layer
			Inner side (cell side) layer
			Materials used for inner layer
			Global photovoltaic back sheet market: Key players
				Outline placeholder
					Solar ribbon
					Solar module junction box
			Design requirements
			Bypass diode
			Cable requirements for junction box
			Connectors
				Outline placeholder
					Frame
					Adhesive and sealant
			Acetoxy cure and neutral cure silicones
			Adhesive for potting junction box
			Disadvantages of RTV silicones
			Double-sided adhesive tapes
			Manufacturing process of solar PV module and equipment
				Solar cell tabbing and stringing
				Solar circuit layup
				Lamination
				Edge trimming
				Framing
				Junction box fixing
				Electrical testing of solar PV module
			Requirements of solar sun simulators
			Measurement setup
			Measurement principle
			Special type of solar PV modules and manufacturing process
				Half-cut cell solar modules
			Design of half-cut solar cell module
				Outline placeholder
					Glass to glass and bifacial solar modules
			Advantages of bifacial solar modules
			Basics of bifacial technology
			Key drivers for development of bifacial solar module technology
			Fabrication of bifacial solar module
			PV companies working on different bifacial cell technologies
				Outline placeholder
					PERC solar modules
			What is PERC?
			Reliability and tests conducted on solar PV modules
		Thermal cycling
		Humidity-freeze
		UV exposure test
		Dynamic mechanical load test
		Potential induced degradation test
		Visual inspection test
		Maximum power (Pmax) test
		Insulation resistance test
		Wet leakage current test
		Temperature coefficients test
		Nominal operating cell temperature (NCOT/NMOT) test
		Outdoor exposure test
		Hotspot endurance test
		Bypass diode test
		Robustness of terminations test
		Damp-heat test
		Mechanical load test
		Hail stone test
			Manufacturers of crystalline silicon solar PV modules
			Technology trends of solar PV modules
		HJT solar modules
		References
Chapter-6---Solar-PV-systems-and-applications_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Solar PV systems and applications
		Introduction
		Different applications of solar PV systems
			Lighting
			Water pumping
			Water purification
			Refrigeration
			Electric fences
			Battery charging
			Telecommunications
			Oil and gas platforms
			Cathodic protection
			Space
			Transport
			Other applications
			Grid connected
			Hybrid power
			Microgrids
			Solar roads-Highways
			Solar-powered battery charging system
			Technical considerations for grid applications of battery energy storage systems
			EV charging system
Chapter-7---Off-grid-solar-photovoltaic-systems_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Off-grid solar photovoltaic systems
		Introduction
		System components of off-grid solar PV systems
			Solar PV module
			Solar charge controller
				Solar charge controller-PWM type
				Solar charge controller-MPPT type
				Functions of charge controllers
					Overcharge protection
					Low voltage cut-off and overdischarge protection
					Over load protection
					Charging of lead-acid batteries
			Battery bank
				Characteristics of a battery
		Battery capacity
		Battery voltage
		Battery lifecycle
		Discharge/charge rate or C-Rate
		Self-discharge
		Cut-off voltage
		Round trip efficiency
			Types of batteries
				Lead-acid batteries
					Flooded lead-acid battery
					Sealed/gel battery
					Absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries
					Advanced lead-acid (lead-acid carbon) battery
				Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries
				Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries
				Lithium-ion batteries
					Types of lithium-ion batteries
			Inverter
		Characteristics
		Maximum input current-MPP tracker input
		Bidirectional inverter
			Module mounting structure
				Design methodology of MMS
			Array junction box
			AC distribution board
			Cables DC and AC
		Connectors
			Design of off-grid or standalone solar PV system
				Design methodology
				Design methodology (steps)-Excel sheet sizing
				Examples of system design
					A. Example 1: Standalone system for home power requirements
		Inverter sizing
		Battery sizing
		Solar charge controller sizing
			B. Example 2-Standalone system for telecom tower
			Cost of off-grid/standalone solar PV systems
			Reliability of off-grid solar PV systems
			Lifecycle cost analysis of off-grid solar PV systems
		References
Chapter-8---Rooftop-and-BIPV-solar-PV-systems_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Rooftop and BIPV solar PV systems
		Introduction
		Rooftop solar PV systems
		Components of grid-tied rooftop solar PV systems
			Inverters
				Single phase/three-phase string inverters
				Microinverters
				Microinverter-AC module
				DC optimizers and inverters
					The Solar Edge DC optimizer
					Tigo DC optimizers
					Huawei DC optimizer
		Building integrated PV (BIPV) systems
			Functions and requirements of BIPV systems
			Advantages of BIPV and technology
				Where can BIPV be installed?
				BIPV market
				What technologies are involved with BIPV?
				Specifications for BIPV laminates
		Design of rooftop and BIPV solar PV systems
			Sizing of the PV system
			Module mounting structure
				East-West mounting
				Selecting the circuit breaker
			Some more aspects considered in system design
				Site survey
				Shading
				Orientation/tilt
				Selection of solar array
				Inverter selection
				String and DC voltage calculations-Example
			Design of BIPV PV systems
		Cost of rooftop solar PV systems
		Reliability of rooftop solar PV system
			Voltage rise issue
			Potential induced degradation
			Electrical arcing and fire of roofs and systems
		Lifecycle cost analysis of rooftop solar PV systems
		References
Chapter-9---Grid-connected-solar-PV-power-systems_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Grid-connected solar PV power systems
		Introduction
		Components of grid-connected solar PV power systems
			Solar PV modules
			Mono- versus multicrystalline Si solar PV modules
			60 Cell module versus 72 cell module
			Inverters or power conditioning units
				Central inverters
				String inverters
			DC cables and connectors
			Array junction box/DC string combiner box
			Module mounting structure and types
			Fixed tilt
			Seasonal tilt
			Single-axis trackers
			Dual-axis tracker
			Civil foundations
			Ramming type
			AC cables
			Grounding of solar PV power plants-Grid-connected
		Design of grid-connected solar PV power systems
		Site survey
		Technoeconomic
		Infrastructure logistics
		Solar resource data and irradiance assessment
		Selection of module and inverter
		String length design
		Module mounting structure design
		Tilt angle
		DC to AC ratio
		Interrow spacing
		Shadow analysis
		Making of layout
		DC cable design
		AC distribution board or LT panel
		Energy yield estimation
		Uncertainties in solar PV energy yield estimation
		Earthing design
		Lightning arrester design and connection
		Auxiliary power supply-Transformers
		Grid connection
		Transformer
		HT panel
		Circuit breakers
		Protection, metering, and control cubicles
		Lightning arrestors
		Isolators and insulators
		Weather monitoring station
		Simulation tools for design of grid-connected solar PV power system
		Typical schematic diagram and field application examples of grid-connected solar PV power systems
		Bifacial solar PV systems
		Back ground
		Basics of bifacial technology
		Issues to be sorted out
		Floating solar PV systems
		Module mounting structure (floating platform)
		Bench mark cost of ground mounted solar PV systems
		References
Chapter-10---Grid-integration--performance--and-maintenance-o_2021_Solar-PV-
	Grid integration, performance, and maintenance of solar PV power systems
		Introduction
		AC system requirements for solar PV power system
			ACDB: An interface for a string inverter with a power transformer
			Transformer requirement
				Power transformer
				Inverter duty transformer
				Windings
				Transformer oil
				Core
				Insulating materials
				Conservator
				Breather
				Radiators
				Tank
				Oil gauge and WTI
				Buchholtz relay
				Tap changer
				Connection and vector group
			Instrument transformers
			Switchgear
				Circuit breaker
				Protection relays
				Measuring instruments and analogue meters
				Current transformers
				Potential transformers
			Substation for solar PV system
				Lightning arrester
				Isolator
				Current transformer (outdoor)
				Potential transformer (outdoor)
				SF6 Circuit breaker (outdoor)
				Energy meter
				Two/four/six pole structure
				Auxiliary power supply
		Transmission line requirement
		Protection requirements for solar PV power system
		Grid integration of solar PV power system
			Reactive power control
		Methodology for performance analysis of solar PV power plant
			Performance ratio
			PLF calculation
		Performance analysis of solar PV systems and calculations-Typical example
		Reliability of grid-connected solar PV power systems
		O&M aspect of grid-connected solar PV power system
			Maintenance aspect of solar PV power plants
			Preventive and corrective maintenance
			Performance and operational aspects
			Solar PV module care
			Inverter care
			Transformer care
			Potential transformer care
			Circuit breakers (outdoor)
			Lightning arrestor
			Isolator
			Current transformer (outdoor)
			Switchyard, control panel and relays
			Infrared thermography
		References
Index_2021_Solar-PV-Power
	Index
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