Solar PV power design, manufacturing and applications from sand to systems

Front matter
Copyright
Dedication
About the authors
	Rabindra Satpathy
	Affiliations and expertise
	Venkateswarlu Pamuru
	Affiliations and expertise
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Manufacturing of polysilicon
	Introduction
	Quartz-the input for polysilicon production
		Specifications/requirements of quartz
		Quartz resources, processing, and quantity required for polysilicon production
		Quartz purification, sources of availability and price
			Crushing
			Attrition scrubbing
			Magnetic separation
			Froth flotation
	Polysilicon-basic manufacturing processes
		Specifications/requirements of polysilicon
		The process from quartz to metallurgical-grade silicon
		Siemens process of TCS production-purification
		Siemens process
		TCS production technology
			Direct chlorination
			Hydrochlorination
			Closed loop hybrid Siemens process
		Purification of TCS
		Why Siemens reactor-based polysilicon is the most adopted
		Siemens process by CVD
	Alternate methods of polysilicon production
		Upgraded metallurgical-grade process
		Fluidized bed reactors and FBR process
		Union carbide process
		The following are the major advantages of silane as a silicon source gas
		The following are the major disadvantages of silane compared to TCS
	Global polysilicon manufacturing scenario
	References
Silicon crystal growth process
	Specification/requirement of ingots
	Process of making ingots (CZ and float zone method)
		Crystal growth by Czochralski method
		Parts of the crystal growth puller
		Charge preparation
		Adding dopant to charge
		Meltdown
		Seeding
		Starting of crystal growth
		Necking process
		Crown and shoulder of the crystal
		Body of the crystal
		Coning and tail formation
		Weighing of the as-grown crystal
		Cropping of top and tail
		Shaping of as-grown crystal
			Crystal growth with the float zone method
	Process of multicrystalline Si ingot casting
		Charge preparation
		Adding dopant to charge
		Growth process
		Annealing and cooling
	Equipment used for ingot manufacturing
	Quality testing and reliability
	Manufacturers of Si ingots in the world
	Technology trend of ingots
	References
Silicon wafer manufacturing process
	Specification/requirement of wafers
	Process of wafer making
	Slicing process
		Ingot slicing using annular saw or ID saw
		Ingot slicing using wire saw-loose abrasive slurry process
			Ingot/brick weight checking
			Ingot preparation and gluing
			Ingot loading and stabilization
			Cutting process
			Wafer cleaning
		Ingot slicing using diamond wire saw process
			Multisilicon wafer production-process steps
			Monosilicon wafer production-process steps
		Quality testing and reliability
		Equipment used for silicon wafer manufacturing
		Manufacturers of silicon wafers
		Technology trend and pricing analysis of wafers
	Direct wafer process (DWP)
	Kerf loss wafer process by epitaxy
	What is the new trend in wafer manufacturing?
	References
Making of crystalline silicon solar cells
	Introduction
	Basics of solar cell/physics of solar cell
		Light absorption and generation of charge carriers
		Recombination of charge carriers and lifetime
		Separation of the light-generated charge carriers
	Charge carrier separation
	Diffusion
	Solar cell I-V characteristics
	Resistance effect
	Loss mechanisms
		Specifications of the solar cell
		Manufacturing process of solar cell
			Wafer sorting inspection
			Saw damage removal and texturization
				Alkaline etching
				Acidic etching
				Equipment used for etching and the suppliers
			Doping of silicon material
				Quartz tube diffusion for P-type wafer
				Phosphoric acid spray
				Ion implantation
			Etching of phosphosilicate glass (PSG)
			Edge isolation
				Plasma etching
				Wet chemical etching
				Laser grooving
			Antireflection coating
				Sputtering technique
				PECVD of silicon nitride
			Contact making
			Testing and sorting of solar cells
		P-type vs N-type solar cells
		PERC/PERL cells and the manufacturing process
	Basics of passivation
		Bifacial solar cells and the manufacturing process
	Key drivers for bifacial solar cells/modules
		Advanced high efficiency cells and the manufacturing process
			IBC solar cell
			TOPCon solar cell
			HJT solar cells
	Advantages
	Process flow of HJT
	Equipment used for advanced solar cell manufacturing
	Manufacturers of silicon solar cells and technology trends
	References
Manufacturing of crystalline silicon solar PV modules
	Introduction
	Design of a solar PV module
	Bypass diodes
	Cell to module loss (CTM)
		Specifications/requirements of solar PV modules
	Dimensions
	Weight
	Cells
	Cell dimensions
	Glass
	Back sheet
	Encapsulation
	Frame
	Cable and connectors
	Junction box
	Bypass diodes
	Electrical data
	NOCT/NMOT
	PTC rating
	Power tolerance
	Module efficiency and cell efficiency
	Temperature coefficients
	Maximum system voltage
	Maximum series fuse rating
	Design load
	Maximum wind speed
	Fire safety class
	Warranty
		Bill of materials of solar PV modules and their requirements
		Superstrate
		Antireflection-coated (ARC) glass
		Market players
			Outline placeholder
				Encapsulant
		Requirements for encapsulation materials
		Different types of encapsulants
		PVB
		Silicone adhesive
		Thermoplastic silicone elastomers (TPSEs)
		Ionomers
		EVA
		Solar encapsulant market competitive landscape
		Polyolefin elastomers (POE)
			Outline placeholder
				Solar cell
				Substrate
		Outer (air) side layer
		Middle layer
		Inner side (cell side) layer
		Materials used for inner layer
		Global photovoltaic back sheet market: Key players
			Outline placeholder
				Solar ribbon
				Solar module junction box
		Design requirements
		Bypass diode
		Cable requirements for junction box
		Connectors
			Outline placeholder
				Frame
				Adhesive and sealant
		Acetoxy cure and neutral cure silicones
		Adhesive for potting junction box
		Disadvantages of RTV silicones
		Double-sided adhesive tapes
		Manufacturing process of solar PV module and equipment
			Solar cell tabbing and stringing
			Solar circuit layup
			Lamination
			Edge trimming
			Framing
			Junction box fixing
			Electrical testing of solar PV module
		Requirements of solar sun simulators
		Measurement setup
		Measurement principle
		Special type of solar PV modules and manufacturing process
			Half-cut cell solar modules
		Design of half-cut solar cell module
			Outline placeholder
				Glass to glass and bifacial solar modules
		Advantages of bifacial solar modules
		Basics of bifacial technology
		Key drivers for development of bifacial solar module technology
		Fabrication of bifacial solar module
		PV companies working on different bifacial cell technologies
			Outline placeholder
				PERC solar modules
		What is PERC?
		Reliability and tests conducted on solar PV modules
	Thermal cycling
	Humidity-freeze
	UV exposure test
	Dynamic mechanical load test
	Potential induced degradation test
	Visual inspection test
	Maximum power (Pmax) test
	Insulation resistance test
	Wet leakage current test
	Temperature coefficients test
	Nominal operating cell temperature (NCOT/NMOT) test
	Outdoor exposure test
	Hotspot endurance test
	Bypass diode test
	Robustness of terminations test
	Damp-heat test
	Mechanical load test
	Hail stone test
		Manufacturers of crystalline silicon solar PV modules
		Technology trends of solar PV modules
	HJT solar modules
	References
Solar PV systems and applications
	Introduction
	Different applications of solar PV systems
		Lighting
		Water pumping
		Water purification
		Refrigeration
		Electric fences
		Battery charging
		Telecommunications
		Oil and gas platforms
		Cathodic protection
		Space
		Transport
		Other applications
		Grid connected
		Hybrid power
		Microgrids
		Solar roads-Highways
		Solar-powered battery charging system
		Technical considerations for grid applications of battery energy storage systems
		EV charging system
Off-grid solar photovoltaic systems
	Introduction
	System components of off-grid solar PV systems
		Solar PV module
		Solar charge controller
			Solar charge controller-PWM type
			Solar charge controller-MPPT type
			Functions of charge controllers
				Overcharge protection
				Low voltage cut-off and overdischarge protection
				Over load protection
				Charging of lead-acid batteries
		Battery bank
			Characteristics of a battery
	Battery capacity
	Battery voltage
	Battery lifecycle
	Discharge/charge rate or C-Rate
	Self-discharge
	Cut-off voltage
	Round trip efficiency
		Types of batteries
			Lead-acid batteries
				Flooded lead-acid battery
				Sealed/gel battery
				Absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries
				Advanced lead-acid (lead-acid carbon) battery
			Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries
			Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries
			Lithium-ion batteries
				Types of lithium-ion batteries
		Inverter
	Characteristics
	Maximum input current-MPP tracker input
	Bidirectional inverter
		Module mounting structure
			Design methodology of MMS
		Array junction box
		AC distribution board
		Cables DC and AC
	Connectors
		Design of off-grid or standalone solar PV system
			Design methodology
			Design methodology (steps)-Excel sheet sizing
			Examples of system design
				A. Example 1: Standalone system for home power requirements
	Inverter sizing
	Battery sizing
	Solar charge controller sizing
		B. Example 2-Standalone system for telecom tower
		Cost of off-grid/standalone solar PV systems
		Reliability of off-grid solar PV systems
		Lifecycle cost analysis of off-grid solar PV systems
	References
Rooftop and BIPV solar PV systems
	Introduction
	Rooftop solar PV systems
	Components of grid-tied rooftop solar PV systems
		Inverters
			Single phase/three-phase string inverters
			Microinverters
			Microinverter-AC module
			DC optimizers and inverters
				The Solar Edge DC optimizer
				Tigo DC optimizers
				Huawei DC optimizer
	Building integrated PV (BIPV) systems
		Functions and requirements of BIPV systems
		Advantages of BIPV and technology
			Where can BIPV be installed?
			BIPV market
			What technologies are involved with BIPV?
			Specifications for BIPV laminates
	Design of rooftop and BIPV solar PV systems
		Sizing of the PV system
		Module mounting structure
			East-West mounting
			Selecting the circuit breaker
		Some more aspects considered in system design
			Site survey
			Shading
			Orientation/tilt
			Selection of solar array
			Inverter selection
			String and DC voltage calculations-Example
		Design of BIPV PV systems
	Cost of rooftop solar PV systems
	Reliability of rooftop solar PV system
		Voltage rise issue
		Potential induced degradation
		Electrical arcing and fire of roofs and systems
	Lifecycle cost analysis of rooftop solar PV systems
	References
Grid-connected solar PV power systems
	Introduction
	Components of grid-connected solar PV power systems
		Solar PV modules
		Mono- versus multicrystalline Si solar PV modules
		60 Cell module versus 72 cell module
		Inverters or power conditioning units
			Central inverters
			String inverters
		DC cables and connectors
		Array junction box/DC string combiner box
		Module mounting structure and types
		Fixed tilt
		Seasonal tilt
		Single-axis trackers
		Dual-axis tracker
		Civil foundations
		Ramming type
		AC cables
		Grounding of solar PV power plants-Grid-connected
	Design of grid-connected solar PV power systems
	Site survey
	Technoeconomic
	Infrastructure logistics
	Solar resource data and irradiance assessment
	Selection of module and inverter
	String length design
	Module mounting structure design
	Tilt angle
	DC to AC ratio
	Interrow spacing
	Shadow analysis
	Making of layout
	DC cable design
	AC distribution board or LT panel
	Energy yield estimation
	Uncertainties in solar PV energy yield estimation
	Earthing design
	Lightning arrester design and connection
	Auxiliary power supply-Transformers
	Grid connection
	Transformer
	HT panel
	Circuit breakers
	Protection, metering, and control cubicles
	Lightning arrestors
	Isolators and insulators
	Weather monitoring station
	Simulation tools for design of grid-connected solar PV power system
	Typical schematic diagram and field application examples of grid-connected solar PV power systems
	Bifacial solar PV systems
	Back ground
	Basics of bifacial technology
	Issues to be sorted out
	Floating solar PV systems
	Module mounting structure (floating platform)
	Bench mark cost of ground mounted solar PV systems
	References
Grid integration, performance, and maintenance of solar PV power systems
	Introduction
	AC system requirements for solar PV power system
		ACDB: An interface for a string inverter with a power transformer
		Transformer requirement
			Power transformer
			Inverter duty transformer
			Windings
			Transformer oil
			Core
			Insulating materials
			Conservator
			Breather
			Radiators
			Tank
			Oil gauge and WTI
			Buchholtz relay
			Tap changer
			Connection and vector group
		Instrument transformers
		Switchgear
			Circuit breaker
			Protection relays
			Measuring instruments and analogue meters
			Current transformers
			Potential transformers
		Substation for solar PV system
			Lightning arrester
			Isolator
			Current transformer (outdoor)
			Potential transformer (outdoor)
			SF6 Circuit breaker (outdoor)
			Energy meter
			Two/four/six pole structure
			Auxiliary power supply
	Transmission line requirement
	Protection requirements for solar PV power system
	Grid integration of solar PV power system
		Reactive power control
	Methodology for performance analysis of solar PV power plant
		Performance ratio
		PLF calculation
	Performance analysis of solar PV systems and calculations-Typical example
	Reliability of grid-connected solar PV power systems
	O&M aspect of grid-connected solar PV power system
		Maintenance aspect of solar PV power plants
		Preventive and corrective maintenance
		Performance and operational aspects
		Solar PV module care
		Inverter care
		Transformer care
		Potential transformer care
		Circuit breakers (outdoor)
		Lightning arrestor
		Isolator
		Current transformer (outdoor)
		Switchyard, control panel and relays
		Infrared thermography
	References
Index