Solar hydrogen generation

Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 6
1. Renewable Energy and the Terawatt Challenge......Page 18
2. Hydrogen as a Fuel of the Future......Page 20
3. Solar Energy and the Hydrogen Economy......Page 28
4. Water Splitting and Photosynthesis......Page 29
5. Completing the Loop: Fuel Cells......Page 31
References......Page 33
1. Introduction: Basic Properties of the Sun......Page 36
2. The Spectral Distribution of the Sun as a Radiation Source......Page 37
3. The Earth\'s Atmosphere as a Filter......Page 39
4. Utilization of Solar Spectral Regions: Spectral Response of Materials......Page 42
5. Reference Spectral Distributions......Page 49
References......Page 55
1. Introduction......Page 57
2. Electrolysis of Water......Page 59
2.1 Alkaline......Page 60
2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane......Page 61
3.1 First Principles......Page 66
3.2 Overpotentials......Page 68
4. Commercial Electrolyzer Technologies......Page 70
5. Electrolysis System......Page 71
5.1 Energy Efficiency......Page 72
5.2 Electricity Costs......Page 74
6. Opportunities for Renewable Energy......Page 75
7. Conclusions......Page 76
References......Page 77
1. Direct Conversion of Concentrated Sunlight to Electricity......Page 80
2. The CPV Market......Page 81
3. Higher and Higher Conversion Efficiencies......Page 84
4. CPV Reliability......Page 87
5. Following in Wind Energy’s Footsteps......Page 88
6. Low-Cost Hydrogen from Hybrid CPV Systems......Page 90
7. Describing the Hybrid CPV System......Page 91
8. Discussion......Page 96
9. Hydrogen Vision Using Hybrid Solar Concentrators......Page 97
10. Conclusions......Page 98
References......Page 99
1.1 Comparison of Solar Electrochemical, Thermal & Hybrid Water Splitting......Page 102
2.1 Development of Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen......Page 105
2.2 Theory of Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen Generation......Page 106
2.3 Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen Processes......Page 107
3.1 Historical Development of Multi-Step Thermal Processes for Water Electrolysis......Page 109
3.3 High-Temperature, Indirect-Solar Thermal Hydrogen Processes......Page 111
4.2 Theory of Hybrid Solar Hydrogen Generation......Page 114
4.3 Elevated Temperature Solar Hydrogen Processes and Components......Page 126
References......Page 131
1. Scope......Page 137
2. Fundamental Principles......Page 138
3. Nature\'s Photosynthetic Machinery......Page 139
4. Design of Artificial Photosystems......Page 143
5.1 Stability......Page 147
5.2 Photophysics and Photochemistry......Page 150
6.1 Energy Transfer Quenching: Antenna Complexes......Page 152
6.2 Bichromophores: Increasing Excited-State Lifetimes......Page 154
6.3 Reductive and Oxidative Quenching: Dyads and Triads with Donors and Acceptors......Page 156
6.4 Single versus Multi-Electron Processes......Page 159
7.1 Mimicking the Oxygen Evolving Center: Water Oxidation Catalysts......Page 164
7.2 The Hydrogen Evolving Reaction (HER): Hydrogen Evolution Catalysts......Page 167
8. Future Outlook and Concluding Remarks......Page 168
References......Page 170
1. Introduction and Scope......Page 180
2. Types of Approaches......Page 183
3. More on Nomenclature and the Water Splitting Reaction Requirements......Page 185
4. Efficiency of Photoelectrolysis......Page 191
5. Theoretical Aspects......Page 193
6.1 Titanium Dioxide: Early Work......Page 196
6.3 Visible Light Sensitization of TiO[sub(2)]......Page 199
6.4 Recent Work on TiO2 on Photosplitting of Water or on the Oxygen Evolution Reaction......Page 200
6.5 Other Binary Oxides......Page 203
6.6 Perovskite Titanates and Related Oxides......Page 205
6.7 Tantalates and Niobates......Page 210
6.8 Miscellaneous Multinary Oxides......Page 211
7. Nitrides, Oxynitrides and Oxysulfides......Page 213
8.1 Cadmium Sulfide......Page 215
8.2 Other Metal Chalcogenides......Page 217
9. Group III-V Compound Semiconductors......Page 218
10. Germanium and Silicon......Page 219
12.1 Semiconductor Composites......Page 221
13. Photochemical Diodes and Twin-Photosystem Configurations for Water Splitting......Page 223
14. Other Miscellaneous Approaches and Hydrogen Generation from Media Other than Water......Page 224
Acknowledgments......Page 226
References......Page 11
1. Introduction......Page 242
2.1 Mechanism of Hydrogen Production......Page 243
2.2 Hydrogenase-Catalyzed H[sub(2)] Production......Page 246
2.3 [FeFe]—hydrogenases......Page 247
3.1 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Production......Page 248
3.2 Hydrogenase-Catalyzed H[sub(2)] Production......Page 249
3.3 [NiFe]-Hydrogenases......Page 251
3.4 Nitrogenase-Catalyzed H[sub(2)] Production......Page 253
3.5 Nitrogenases......Page 254
4.1 Non-Oxygenic Purple, Non-Sulfur Photosynthetic Bacteria......Page 255
4.2 Mixed Light/Dark Systems......Page 256
4.3 Bio-Inspired Systems......Page 257
5.1 General......Page 258
5.2 Oxygen Sensitivity of [FeFe]-Hydrogenases......Page 259
5.3 Oxygen Sensitivity of [NiFe]-Hydrogenases......Page 261
5.4 Competition between Different Pathways for Photosynthetic Reductants......Page 262
5.5 Down-Regulation of Electron Transport Rates......Page 263
5.6 Low-Light Saturation Properties of Photosynthetic Organisms......Page 264
5.7 Photobioreactor and System Costs......Page 265
6. Future Directions......Page 267
Acknowledgments......Page 268
References......Page 12
1. Introduction......Page 285
2. Description of a PV Electrolytic H2 Production and Distribution System......Page 286
3. Capital Investment and Levelized Price Estimates......Page 293
4. Sensitivity Analysis: H2 Production and PV Electricity Prices......Page 297
5. Economic Analysis of Second Generation (Year 31–Year 60) H[sub(2)] Systems......Page 301
6.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methods......Page 306
7. System Energy Flow/Mass/Balance Analysis......Page 308
8. Conclusions: Summary of Results and Suggestions for Future Analysis......Page 310
2. Levelized Price Estimates Derived by Net Present Value Cash Flow Analysis......Page 317
3. Adiabatic Compression Formula......Page 319
4. Deviations from DOE H2A Assumptions......Page 320
5. Summary of Reviewer Comments with Responses......Page 321
References......Page 324
E......Page 326
L......Page 327
S......Page 328
Z......Page 329