Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
Authors
Chapter 1: Measuring Solar and Infrared Radiation
	Questions
	References
Chapter 2: Definitions and Terminology
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Sun
	2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation
	2.4 Solar Coordinates
	2.5 Zenith, Azimuth, and Hour Angles
	2.6 Solar, Universal, and Local Standard Time
	2.7 Solar Position Calculation Example
	2.8 Sunrise and Sunset Times
	2.9 Global, Direct Normal, and Diffuse Irradiance
	2.10 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
	2.11 The Spectral Nature of Solar Radiation
	2.12 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
		2.12.1 Conduction
		2.12.2 Convection
		2.12.3 Radiative Heat Transfer
	2.13 Photodiodes and Solar Cell Characteristics
	2.14 Models
	Questions
	References
Chapter 3: Historic Milestones in Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurement
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Earliest Observations of the Sun and the Nature of Light
	3.3 Nineteenth-Century Radiometers
		3.3.1 Pouillet’s Pyrheliometer (1837)
		3.3.2 Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder (1853, 1879)
		3.3.3 Ångström Electrical Compensation Pyrheliometer (1893)
		3.3.4 Callendar Pyranometer (1898)
		3.3.5 Ångström and Tulipan Pyrgeometers (1899)
	3.4 Operational Radiometers of the Twentieth Century
		3.4.1 Abbot Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer (1906)
		3.4.2 Smithsonian Water-Flow Pyrheliometer (1910)
		3.4.3 Marvin Pyrheliometer (1910)
		3.4.4 Ångström Pyranometer (1919)
		3.4.5 Kipp & Zonen Solarimeter (1924)
		3.4.6 Robitzsch Bimetallic Actinograph (1932)
		3.4.7 Eppley 180° Pyrheliometer (1930)
		3.4.8 Eppley Model PSP (1957)
		3.4.9 Yanishevsky Pyranometer (1957)
		3.4.10 Eppley Model NIP (1957)
		3.4.11 Eppley Model Precision Infrared Radiometer (PIR) (1968)
		3.4.12 Primary Absolute Cavity Radiometer (PACRAD) (1969)
		3.4.13 Eppley Model 8-48 (1969)
		3.4.14 LI-COR Model LI-200SA (1971)
		3.4.15 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (1975)
		3.4.16 World Standard Group (1979)
	3.5 Recent Advances in Solar Measurements
		3.5.1 Automatic Hickey–Frieden Cavity Radiometer
		3.5.2 Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM)
		3.5.3 Cryogenic Solar Absolute Radiometer-Measure the Integral Transmittance (CSAR-MITRA)
	3.6 Summary
	Questions
	References
Chapter 4: Direct Normal Irradiance
	4.1 Overview of Direct Normal Irradiance
	4.2 Pyrheliometer Geometry
	4.3 Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
	4.4 Absolute Cavity Radiometers
	4.5 Uncertainty Analysis for Pyrheliometer Calibration
	4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers
		4.6.1 Window Transmittance, Receiver Absorptivity, and Temperature Sensitivity
		4.6.2 Solar Zenith Angle Dependence
	4.7 Uncertainty Analysis for Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Estimates of Direct Normal Irradiance
	4.8 Direct Normal Irradiance Models
		4.8.1 Ground-Based Modeling
		4.8.2 Satellite Model Estimates
	4.9 Historical and Current Surface-Measured Direct Normal Irradiance Data
	4.10 Current Issues Regarding Direct Normal Irradiance Measurements
	Questions
	References
Chapter 5: Broadband Global Irradiance
	5.1 Introduction to Global Horizontal Irradiance Measurements
	5.2 Black-Disk Thermopile Pyranometers
		5.2.1 Thermal Offsets
		5.2.2 Nonlinearity
		5.2.3 Spectral Response
		5.2.4 Angle of Incidence Response
		5.2.5 Response Degradation
		5.2.6 Temperature Dependence
		5.2.7 Ice and Snow on Dome—Ventilators
		5.2.8 An Optical Anomaly
	5.3 Black-and-White Pyranometers
		5.3.1 Characteristics of Black-and-White Pyranometers
		5.3.2 Lack of Thermal Offset
	5.4 Photodiode-Based Pyranometers
		5.4.1 Characterizing a Photodiode Pyranometer
		5.4.2 Removing Biases in Photodiode Pyranometer Measurements
		5.4.3 Reference Solar Cells
	5.5 Calibration of Pyranometers
		5.5.1 Shade–Unshade Calibration Method
		5.5.2 Summation Method Calibration
	5.6 Pyranometer Calibration Uncertainties
		5.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis Applied to Pyranometer Calibration
		5.6.2 An Example of the GUM Procedure Applied to the Calibration Uncertainties of a Pyranometer
		5.6.3 Importance of Understanding Limitations of Percent Uncertainties
	Questions
	References
	Useful Links
Chapter 6: Diffuse Irradiance
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Atmospheric Scattering Concepts
	6.3 Measuring Diffuse Irradiance
		6.3.1 Fixed Shadowband Measurements of Diffuse Irradiance
		6.3.2 Calculated Diffuse Irradiance versus Shading Disk Diffuse
		6.3.3 Rotating Shadowband Diffuse Measurements
	6.4 Calibration of Diffuse Pyranometers
	6.5 Value of Accurate Diffuse Measurements
	Questions
	References
Chapter 7: Solar Spectral Measurements
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum
	7.3 Atmospheric Interactions
		7.3.1 Rayleigh Scattering
		7.3.2 Aerosol Scattering and Absorption
		7.3.3 Gas Absorption
		7.3.4 Transmission of the Atmosphere
	7.4 Broad Filter Radiometry
		7.4.1 Photometry
		7.4.2 Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
		7.4.3 UVA and UVB
	7.5 Narrow-Band Filter Radiometry
		7.5.1 Aerosol Optical Depth
		7.5.2 Water Vapor
		7.5.3 Sun Radiometers
	7.6 Spectrometry
		7.6.1 Spectrometers
		7.6.2 Spectral Models
		7.6.3 Discrete Spectral Measurements and Modeling Combined
	Questions
	References
Chapter 8: Albedo
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Broadband Albedo
	8.3 Spectral Albedo
	8.4 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function
	8.5 Albedo Measurements
		8.5.1 Broadband Albedo
		8.5.2 Spectral Albedo
	Questions
	References
Chapter 9: Measuring Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Effect of Tilt on Single Black Detector Pyranometers
	9.3 Effect of Tilt on Black-and-White Pyranometers
	9.4 Effect of Tilt on Photodiode Pyranometers
	9.5 Recommendations for Tilted Irradiance Measurements
	9.6 Modeling Photovoltaic System Performance with Data from Photodiode Pyranometers
	Questions
	References
Chapter 10: Shadowband Radiometers
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Introduction to the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
	10.3 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Using Silicon Detector
	10.4 Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
	10.5 SPN1 Sunshine Pyranometer
	Questions
	References
Chapter 11: Infrared Measurements
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Pyrgeometers
	11.3 Calibration
	11.4 Improved Calibrations
	11.5 Other Pyrgeometer Manufacturers
	11.6 Operational Considerations
	Questions
	References
Chapter 12: Net Radiation Measurements
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Single-Sensor (All-Wave) Net Radiometers
	12.3 Two-Sensor Net Radiometers
	12.4 Four-Sensor Net Radiometers
	12.5 Accuracy of Net Radiometers
	12.6 A Better Net Radiation Standard
	12.7 Net Radiometer Sources
	Questions
	References
Chapter 13: Radiometer Calibrations
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 What Is Calibration?
		13.1.2 Why Is Calibration Needed?
		13.1.3 How Frequently Should a Radiometer Be Calibrated?
	13.2 Broadband Shortwave Radiometer Calibration
	13.3 Broadband Longwave Radiometer Calibration
	13.4 Spectral Calibrations
		13.4.1 The Measurement Equation
		13.4.2 Standard Lamps
		13.4.3 Langley Plots
	Questions
	References
Chapter 14: Ancillary Measurements
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Ambient Temperature
		14.2.1 Types of Temperature Sensors
		14.2.2 Response Times
		14.2.3 Measuring Temperature
	14.3 Wind Speed and Wind Direction
		14.3.1 Sensor Terminology
		14.3.2 Anemometer
		14.3.3 Cup Anemometers
		14.3.4 Propeller Anemometers
		14.3.5 Sonic Anemometers
		14.3.6 Installing Anemometers
		14.3.7 Wind Vanes
	14.4 Relative Humidity
	14.5 Atmospheric Water Vapor
		14.5.1 Using GPS Satellites to Measure Precipitable Water Vapor
		14.5.2 Installing a Global Positioning System Antenna
	14.6 Pressure
		14.6.1 Aneroid Displacement Transducers
		14.6.2 Piezoresistive Barometers
		14.6.3 Piezocapacitance Barometers
	14.7 Sky-Imaging Systems
		14.7.1 Site Surveys
		14.7.2 Sky Conditions
	14.8 Circumsolar Instruments
		14.8.1 Sun and Aureole Measurement
		14.8.2 Attempts to Automatically and Continuously Monitor the Circumsolar Irradiance
		14.8.3 Use of the Sky Imager to Measure Circumsolar Irradiance
		14.8.4 Use of the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer
	14.9 Recommended Minimum Accuracies for Operational Instruments
	Questions
	References
Chapter 15: Solar Monitoring Station Best Practices
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Choosing a Site
	15.3 Grounding and Shielding
	15.4 Data Logger and Communications
	15.5 Measurement Interval
	15.6 Cleaning and Maintenance
	15.7 Record Keeping
	15.8 Importance of Reviewing Data
	15.9 Quality Control of Data
	15.10 Field Calibrations
	15.11 Physical Layout of a Solar-Monitoring Station
	Questions
	References
Chapter 16: Solar Radiation Estimates Derived from Satellite Images and Auxiliary Measurements
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Geostationary Satellites
	16.3 Deriving Irradiance from Satellites
		16.3.1 Physical Models
		16.3.2 Empirical Models
		16.3.3 Global Irradiance
		16.3.4 Pixel-to-Cloud Index Conversion
		16.3.5 Cloud Index to Global Horizontal Irradiance Conversion
		16.3.6 Direct Irradiance
		16.3.7 Diffuse Irradiance
		16.3.8 Tilted Irradiance
	16.4 Status of Satellite Irradiance Models
	16.5 Comments on Modeling and Measurement
	Questions
	References
Appendix A: Measurement Uncertainty Principles
Appendix B: Modeling Solar Radiation
Appendix C: Sunshine Duration
Appendix D: Sun Path Charts
Appendix E: Solar Position Algorithms
Appendix F: Useful Conversion Factors
Appendix G: Sources for Equipment
Appendix H: BORCAL Report
Appendix I: Failure Modes
Appendix J: How to Build a Pyranometer with a Solar Cell or Photodiode
Appendix K: Content Required for a Comprehensive Datafile
Appendix L: Solar Radiation Databases
Answers to Chapter Questions
Index