Soft Systems Methodology in Education: Applying a Critical Realist Approach to Research on Teacher Education

Acknowledgements and Dedications
Introduction
	Inception of the Research
	The Purpose of this Book
	Audience
	Integrating Soft System Methodology with Critical Realism
	How to Read this Book
	Omissions and Intentions
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
Part I: Systems Thinking, Soft Systems Methodology and Critical Realism
	Chapter 1: Systems Thinking and Soft Systems Methodology
		Introduction
		The Attraction of Soft Systems Methodology
		A Whistle Stop Tour of the History of Systems Thinking
		General Systems Theory
		Cybernetics and VSM
		Operations Research
		Autopoiesis
		Readings in Systems Thinking
		System Definitions and Concepts
		Emergence
		Hierarchies
		Feedback
		Homeostasis
		Open and Closed Systems
		Background and Motivation of Checkland
		Checkland’s Writing
		Messes and Wicked Problems
		Swamp of Relevance
		Headline Aspects of SSM
		Ontology and Epistemology
		Critique of SSM’s Ontology
		Critique of SSM: Radical Change Theory
		Our Interpretation of Checkland’s Model
		Activity 1.1: Finding Out
		Activity 1.2: Modelling
		Activity 1.3: Using Models to Structure Debate
		Activity 1.4: Action to Improve the Situation
		Using SSM to Explore the Higher Education Admission System
		HE Admission System, Activity 1.1: Finding Out
		HE Admission System, Activity 1.2: Modelling
		HE Admission System, Activity 1.3: Using Models to Structure Debate
		HE Admission System, Activity 1.4: Action to Improve the Situation.
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2: Critical Realism as an Underpinning Philosophy
		Introduction
		The Need for an Underpinning Philosophy
		The Importance of Ontology and Epistemology
		The Ontological and Epistemological Spectrum
		The Growth of the Scientific Method
		The Nature of Causation
		The Practicum Study Narrative
		The Origin of Critical Realism
		Domains and Causal Powers
		The Epistemic Fallacy
		Real, Actual and Empirical Powers
		Induction, Deduction and Retroduction
		Example: Flammable Furniture
		Stratification, Parts, Wholes, and Emergence
		Example: The Log and the Wood
		Identifying Parts and Wholes
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Critical Realism in the Social Sciences
		Introduction
		Moving from Science to Social Science
		A Naturalist Epistemology
		Transitive and Intransitive Objects
		Context of Discovery and Context of Justification
		Epistemological Spectrum
		Key Tenets of Critical Realism
		First Tenet of Critical Realism
		Second Tenet of Critical Realism
		Third Tenet of Critical Realism
		Fourth Tenet of Critical Realism
		Ontological Rigour in the Social Sciences
		Structure and Agency
		Social Evolution
		Truth and Data Collection Methods
		Scott’s Five Social Objects
		Vertexicality
		Norm Circles
		Interaction Groups
		Associations
		Organisations
		Elder-Vass’ Five-Stage Social Ontology
		Introduction to the Capability Approach
		Sen’s Capability Approach Model
		Description of the Capability Approach
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: The Stepping-Stones Model and the Worldview, Metaphor and Power of Social Objects (Womposo) Strategy
		Introduction
		Research Methods Texts
		Research Onion Model: Ontology and Epistemology
		Exploring the Layers of the Research Onion
		Stepping-Stones Research Stages
		Stepping-Stones: Topic and Aims
		Stepping-Stones: Paradigm
		Stepping-Stones: Strategy
		Stepping-Stones: Research Design
		Stepping-Stones: Methods
		Stepping-Stones: Sample, Collect, Interpret
		Stepping-Stones: Comparison with Literature
		Mapping out the Womposo Research Strategy
		The Learning Cycle Model of SSM
		Activity 1 and Activity 2 of the Womposo Research Strategy
		Integrating SSM with Critical Realism
		Approach of Elder-Vass to Critical Realism in the Social Sciences
		Activity 3 and Activity 4 of the Womposo Research Strategy
		Integrating Social Structures, Social Objects and the Capability Approach
		Conclusion
		References
Part II: Practicum Study: Context
	Chapter 5: The Three Jurisdictions: England, New South Wales and Ontario
		Introduction
		Accessing the Three Jurisdictions
		Policy in Schools: Hierarchy and Markets
		Schools in England: Regulation, Operation and Funding
		Schools in England: Curriculum, Assessment and Inspection
		Schools in England: Markets and Choice
		Schools in New South Wales: Regulation, Operation and Funding
		Schools in New South Wales: Curriculum, Assessment and Inspection
		Schools in New South Wales: Markets and Choice
		Schools in Ontario: Regulation, Operation and Funding
		Schools in Ontario: Curriculum, Assessment and Inspection
		Schools in Ontario: Markets and Choice
		Comparison of School Education in the Three Jurisdictions
		Policies in English Initial Teacher Education
		Policies in New South Wales’ Initial Teacher Education
		Policies in Ontario’s Initial Teacher Education
		Synthesis
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: The Literature on Policy Borrowing, Learning, Professional Identity and the Practicum
		Introduction
		Policy Change and Policy Borrowing
		The Rescaling of Political Authority
		Example of Policy Adoption
		Adoption and Legitimisation of Policy Initiatives
		National Standards
		Teachers’ Standards in Three Jurisdictions
		Learner Identity
		Professional Identity
		Three Paradigms of Teaching
		Reflective Practice
		Legitimate Peripheral Participation
		From Communities of Practice to Codes of Practice
		Systematic Reviews of Literature on the Practicum
		Role of the Mentor
		Agency
		Reality Shock
		The Craft of Teaching and the Practice
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Research Stages of the Practicum Study
		Introduction
		Context and Objectives of the Practicum Study (Topic and Aims)
		Aims of the Practicum Study (Topic and Aims)
		Policy Borrowing (Paradigm)
		Systemic Effects (Paradigm)
		Ontology, Epistemology and Axiology (Paradigm)
		The Middle Way (Paradigm)
		Womposo (Strategy)
		Conceptual Framework for the Practicum Study (Strategy)
		Selecting the Jurisdictions (Research Design)
		Gatekeepers (Research Design)
		Collecting Data (Research Design)
		Validity, Triangulation and Reliability (Research Design)
		Sampling of Data (Sampling, Collecting and Interpreting the Data)
		Ethics Approval (Methods)
		Ethics Creep (Methods)
		Analysis and Synthesis (Methods)
		Collecting and Recording Data (Sampling, Collecting and Interpreting the Data)
		Comparison with Literature
		Metaphors (Womposo)
		Illustrations (Womposo)
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: Practicum Study: Data Collection and Interpretation
	Chapter 8: The Perspectives of Pre-service Teachers
		Introduction
		Activity 1: Finding Out
		Modelling at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising: Activity 3 Expounding the Method
		Conceptualising at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at University of Wallaby Creek, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at University of Wallaby Creek, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at University of Wallaby Creek, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Badgerford University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Badgerford University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Badgerford University, England: Activity 4
		Modelling at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 4
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Faculty Advisors’ Perspectives on Becoming a Teacher
		Introduction
		Activity 1: Finding out
		Modelling at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at University of Wallaby Creek, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Wallaby Creek University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Wallaby Creek University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at University of Grey Seal Province, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Badgerford University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Badgerford University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Badgerford University, England: Activity 4
		Modelling at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 4
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Mentors’ Expectations and Perspectives
		Introduction
		Activity 1: Finding Out
		Modelling at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Old Possum University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at University of Wallaby Creek, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Wallaby Creek University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Wallaby Creek University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 3
		Explaining at Australian Koala University, NSW: Activity 4
		Modelling at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Caribou Metropolitan University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 3
		Explaining at Raccoon Technical University, Ontario: Activity 4
		Modelling at Badgerford University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Badgerford University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Badgerford University, England: Activity 4
		Modelling at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 2
		Conceptualising at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 3
		Explaining at Roe Deer Valley University, England: Activity 4
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Findings from the Practicum Study
		Introduction
		The Stakeholders
		The Value Functioning Continuum: PST Stakeholders
		Relationship Between the Literature and Confident PSTs
		Relationship Between the Literature and Keen PSTs
		Relationship Between the Literature and PSTs Suffering Reality Shock
		The Value Functioning Continuum: Faculty Advisor Stakeholders
		Relationship Between the Literature and Status Aware Faculty Advisors
		Relationship Between the Literature and Nurturing Faculty Advisors
		Relationship Between the Literature and Faculty Advisors Worried About Losing Status
		The Value Functioning Continuum: Mentor Stakeholders
		Relationship Between the Literature and Mentors Seeking Personal Development
		Relationship Between the Literature and Mentors Supporting PSTs
		Relationship Between the Literature and Mentors and Accountability
		Literature Themes Emerging
		Agency
		Communities of Practice and Codes of Practice
		From Identity to Reality Shock
		Rescaling of Political Authority
		Aspects Raised Yet Not Identified in the Literature
		Findings of the Practicum Study
		Causal Factor 1: Stakeholder Position
		Causal Factor 2: Context for PSTs
		Causal Factor 3: Influence on Faculty Advisors
		Causal Factor 4: Influences on Mentors
		Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Appraising the Womposo Research Strategy
	Chapter 12: Evaluating the Practicum Study and the Womposo Research Strategy
		Summary of This Book
		Outline of This Concluding Chapter
		Contribution to Knowledge: Causal Factors
		Mechanism 1: Stakeholder Position
		Mechanism 2: Context
		Mechanism 3: School Culture
		Mechanism 4: Policy and Status
		The Influence of Policy
		The Problem Situation and the Problems Within the Practicum Study
		Addressing the Problems
		Models of Teacher Learning Espoused
		Stratified Ontology
		Other Techniques that Can Be Applied in Systems Thinking
		SSM and Homeostasis
		From Systems to Policy Borrowing
		Critical Realism as a Middle Way
		Ethical Issues Arising
		Evaluating Reliability, Validity, Triangulation and Generalisation
		Benefits and Limitations of Womposo
		Evaluation of Womposo for Its Functionality, Usability and Utility
		Functionality
		Usability and Utility
		Scoring Womposo
		Conclusion
		References
Index