Social Variation and the Latin Language

Social Variation and the Latin Language......Page 5
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 17
Abbreviations......Page 21
Part 1 - Introduction......Page 25
1 ‘Vulgar Latin’......Page 27
2 Aspects of social variation in language......Page 29
3 Vulgar Latin, Classical Latin and the source of the Romance languages......Page 31
5 ‘Vulgar Latin’ as a serviceable term: the evidence for social variation in Latin......Page 32
6 Speech and writing......Page 35
7 Sources of information......Page 36
8 Aims and methods......Page 46
9 Narratives of social variation and linguistic change from Latin to Romance......Page 47
10 Analysing the chronology of change in a dead language......Page 49
Part 2 - Phonology and orthography......Page 53
1 Aims......Page 55
2 The interpretation of misspellings......Page 56
1 Vocalic misspellings and their interpretation......Page 61
2 The Classical Latin vowel system......Page 62
3 Vowel systems of the Romance languages......Page 63
5 Vowel confusions in early Latin......Page 65
6 The stress accent and its effect on the vowel system......Page 67
7 Early imperial evidence for changes in the front-vowel system......Page 75
9 Later Latin and front vowels......Page 85
10 The back-vowel merger......Page 87
11 Later Latin and back vowels......Page 90
13 Regional variation......Page 91
14 Final conclusions; social variation and vowels......Page 93
2 AE......Page 95
3 AV......Page 105
4 Final conclusions: diphthongs and social variation......Page 111
1 Introduction......Page 114
2 Case studies......Page 117
3 Conclusions: social variation and other factors......Page 123
1 Definition......Page 125
2 i for e in hiatus......Page 126
3 Yod in hiatus: the significance of I longa......Page 128
4 Omission of i in hiatus......Page 132
5 Contraction in hiatus......Page 134
6 Glides in hiatus......Page 137
7 Palatalisation......Page 142
8 Hiatus and social variation......Page 147
VII - The aspirate......Page 149
1 -M......Page 152
2 -S......Page 156
3 -T/D......Page 171
4 Some general conclusions: final consonants and social variation......Page 186
1 Introduction......Page 188
2 Non-standard assimilations forming a system......Page 189
3 The four assimilations......Page 190
4 Some conclusions......Page 197
5 Latin and Italic......Page 198
7 A different case: NS > S......Page 202
1 Introduction......Page 207
2 The Romance languages......Page 210
3 Misspellings in different positions in the word in Latin......Page 211
4 Regional variation in Latin (?)......Page 213
5 Conclusions......Page 214
1 Phonological variables and social class......Page 215
2 Speech and writing......Page 218
3 Vulgar and Classical Latin......Page 219
5 Monitoring......Page 221
Part 3 - Case and prepositions......Page 223
2 Accusative forms and the Romance languages......Page 225
3 Nominative for oblique cases in names, headings, personal designations and appositional expressions, and naming constructions......Page 228
4 Conclusions: the nominative used out of syntax......Page 249
5 The nominative and accusative in lists......Page 250
6 The accusative with nominative function or as a base form......Page 258
7 Conclusions......Page 276
1 Background to the spread of prepositional expressions......Page 281
2 Prepositional expressions: republican and early imperial Latin......Page 284
3 Prepositional expressions and literary artifice......Page 287
4 The genitive and prepositional expressions......Page 291
5 The dative and prepositional expressions......Page 302
6 Prepositions and the instrumental ablative......Page 318
7 Appendix: overlapping instrumental or quasi-instrumental expressions......Page 340
1 The accusative of price......Page 345
2 Some double accusative constructions......Page 347
3 Conclusions......Page 349
1 Introduction: some topics......Page 351
2 Prepositions with names of towns......Page 352
3 The locative to express ‘motion towards’......Page 356
4 Locative for accusative in place names......Page 359
5 The other side of the coin: accusative for locative......Page 361
6 Conclusions......Page 368
1 The pleonastic reflexive dative......Page 370
3 The ethic dative......Page 371
4 The reflexive dative with some transitive verbs......Page 372
5 The reflexive dative with some intransitive verbs......Page 377
6 Romance......Page 383
7 Conclusions......Page 385
1 Introduction......Page 387
2 Expressions with ab......Page 388
3 Expressions with de......Page 392
4 Conclusions......Page 393
1 A Visigothic tablet and the case system......Page 395
2 The case system and social variation: a summary......Page 400
3 Final conclusions......Page 404
Part 4 - Aspects of nominal, pronominal and adverbial morphology and syntax......Page 405
2 From Latin to Romance......Page 407
3 Factors causing change or variation of gender......Page 408
4 Plautus......Page 416
5 Petronius......Page 443
7 Masculine and neuter in later Latin......Page 449
8 Transitional expressions in the shift from neuter to masculine......Page 452
9 ‘Ambigenerics’ in some Romance languages and the neuter plural in some late Latin texts......Page 455
11 Neuters and collectives......Page 461
12 Some final conclusions......Page 472
1 Introduction: some non-standard demonstrative forms......Page 477
2 Forms of ille and iste with the deictic particle -c(e)......Page 478
3 The feminine dative illei and related forms in later Latin......Page 483
4 Forms of iste......Page 488
5 ecce, eccum and their use in compounded demonstrative forms......Page 489
6 General conclusions......Page 504
1 Introduction......Page 506
2 Some early usages......Page 507
3 Some uses of articles in modern languages: anaphoric versus ‘associative’......Page 510
4 The interpretation of anaphoric and associative uses: the Latin evidence......Page 512
5 Recapitulation: identifying article-like usages in a written language......Page 528
6 Some article-like uses particularly of ille but also of ipse......Page 530
7 The Peregrinatio Aetheriae......Page 536
8 The Mulomedicina Chironis......Page 544
9 Conclusions......Page 546
1 Introduction: some questions about suffixation......Page 552
2 Reanalysis of root and suffix......Page 556
3 Interchange of suffixes or substitutions of one for another......Page 557
4 Extended adjectival suffixes......Page 569
5 Conclusions......Page 584
6 Hybrid formations......Page 587
7 A diminutive formation......Page 590
9 -innus......Page 593
10 Back-formations......Page 594
11 A special case: the suffix -osus......Page 595
12 General conclusions: suffixation and social variation......Page 602
1 Introduction: compound adverbs/prepositions in Latin, Romance and Greek......Page 606
2 Between early and late Latin......Page 611
3 The adverbial system of Latin and the late flowering of separative compounds......Page 613
4 Loss of separative force......Page 615
5 Attitudes of grammarians......Page 617
6 Some late compounds......Page 622
7 A case study: veterinary texts......Page 630
8 Conclusions: compounds, Vulgar Latin and later Greek......Page 632
Part 5 - Aspects of verbal morphology and syntax......Page 637
1 Classical Latin and Romance......Page 639
2 Meanings and functions of habeo......Page 640
3 Thielmann’s historical overview......Page 664
4 Agreement of participle and object......Page 669
5 Final conclusions......Page 670
1 Future......Page 676
2 Conditional......Page 684
3 Present indicative with future reference......Page 690
4 Final conclusions......Page 696
2 The infrequency of the passive......Page 698
3 Some terminology......Page 701
4 Romance developments......Page 703
5 Further observations on the reflexive passive......Page 704
6 The reflexive middle/passive in Latin: some narratives......Page 707
7 Early and Classical Latin......Page 710
8 Pliny the Elder......Page 719
9 The Mulomedicina Chironis and Vegetius......Page 720
10 Celsus......Page 730
11 Vitruvius......Page 733
12 The reflexive middle and the reflexive passive......Page 735
13 Conclusions......Page 741
14 Some other replacements for the synthetic passive of the infectum......Page 743
15 Final remarks......Page 748
1 Instrumental and ‘participial’ uses of the ablative of the gerund......Page 749
2 Extended uses of the ablative of the gerund......Page 760
3 Conclusions......Page 763
Part 6 - Aspects of subordination......Page 765
XXVIII - Reported speech......Page 767
1 Indirect questions with indicative verbs......Page 771
2 The infinitive in indirect deliberative questions and potential/generic relative clauses......Page 794
Part 7 - Aspects of the lexicon and word order......Page 799
1 Introduction......Page 801
2 Anatomical terms......Page 803
3 Conclusions......Page 813
1 Suppletion and the Romance languages......Page 816
2 Classical Latin......Page 818
3 Early Latin......Page 819
4 Substitutes for monosyllabic forms of ire......Page 824
5 Non-literary texts......Page 841
6 Conclusions......Page 843
1 Introduction......Page 845
2 Romance languages......Page 847
3 Specimen passages of Latin......Page 848
4 coepi + infinitive......Page 849
5 oportet + infinitival constructions......Page 851
6 Position of the infinitive with all governing verbs......Page 853
7 Some reservations about ‘pragmatic determinants’......Page 856
8 Some determinants of infinitive placement......Page 859
9 Conclusions......Page 861
Part 8 - Summing up......Page 863
1 The social background of Romance phenomena......Page 865
2 The problem of submerged Latin......Page 880
4 Early Latin and the Romance languages......Page 886
5 Grammarians......Page 888
6 Social variation and Latin literature......Page 890
7 Greek and Latin......Page 894
Bibliography......Page 896
Subject index......Page 935
Index verborum......Page 938
Index locorum potiorum......Page 945