Social Psychology

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 7
Copyright Page......Page 8
About The Author......Page 11
Preface\r......Page 15
Brief Contents......Page 31
Contents......Page 33
1 Introducing Social Psychology......Page 44
How We Think about Ourselves......Page 46
How We Think, Feel, and Act in the Social World......Page 48
How Our Attitudes and Behaviors Shape the Social World......Page 49
Behaviorism......Page 50
Historical Events......Page 51
The “I Knew It All Along” Problem......Page 53
Use of Scientific Method......Page 54
Emphasis on Critical Thinking......Page 55
Links to Fields within Psychology......Page 57
Links to Other Fields......Page 58
Individualistic versus Collectivistic Cultures......Page 61
The Impact of Culture......Page 64
The Impact of Subculture......Page 65
2 Research Methods......Page 70
Form a Question......Page 72
Form a Hypothesis......Page 73
Media CONNECTIONS The Growing Use of Web-based Experiments......Page 74
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS?......Page 75
Observational/Naturalistic Methods......Page 76
Environment CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Hot Weather......Page 77
Self-Report or Survey Methods......Page 79
Experimental Methods......Page 86
Health CONNECTIONS Evaluating Abstinence-only Sex Education......Page 87
Internal Validity......Page 88
External Validity......Page 91
What Is the Best Approach?......Page 94
Review by an Institutional Review Board......Page 95
Provide Informed Consent......Page 96
Law CONNECTIONS The Challenges of Studying Drinking and Driving......Page 97
Provide Debriefing......Page 98
The Impact of Question Order......Page 99
The Impact of Language......Page 100
3 Self-Perception and 	Self-Presentation......Page 104
Thinking about Your Thoughts......Page 106
Focusing on Self-Awareness......Page 108
Regulating the Self......Page 109
Examining Your Behavior......Page 111
Interpreting Your Motivation......Page 113
Business CONNECTIONS Does Giving Bonuses Enhance or Undermine Motivation?......Page 114
Social Comparison Theory......Page 116
Media CONNECTIONS What Happens When Barbies Get Smaller and GI Joes Get Bigger?......Page 118
The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion......Page 119
Self-Serving Biases......Page 122
Self-Serving Beliefs......Page 125
Health CONNECTIONS  The Downside of Too Much Optimism......Page 127
Self-Serving Comparisons......Page 128
Self-Serving Behavior......Page 130
The Downside of Overly Positive Self-Views......Page 131
HOW DO PEOPLE PRESENT THEMSELVES TO OTHERS?......Page 132
Self-Promotion......Page 133
Ingratiation......Page 134
Self-Verification......Page 135
The Good—and Bad—News About Self-Presentation......Page 137
Factors Influencing the Self-Concept......Page 139
Strategies for Maintaining a Positive Self-Concept......Page 143
Strategies of Self-Presentation......Page 146
4 Social Perception......Page 152
Attribution Theory......Page 154
Correspondent Inference Theory......Page 155
Covariation Theory......Page 156
Fundamental Attribution Error......Page 159
Health CONNECTIONS The Role of Attributions in Prejudice Against Obesity......Page 160
Actor-observer Effect......Page 161
Business CONNECTIONS Why Disserving Attributions Can Be a Good Idea......Page 162
Salience......Page 164
Lack of Cognitive Capacity......Page 166
Beliefs about Others’ Abilities and Motivations......Page 168
Education CONNECTIONS Why Focusing on Effort Over Ability Is a Good Idea......Page 169
HOW DO WE FORM IMPRESSIONS OF PEOPLE BASED ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR?......Page 170
Communicating in Nonverbal Ways......Page 172
Detecting Deception......Page 173
HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SOCIAL PERCEPTION?......Page 175
Types of Attributions......Page 176
Factors Influencing Attributions......Page 177
Expression of Emotion......Page 179
5 Social Cognition......Page 186
Intuition......Page 188
Availability......Page 189
Base-Rate Fallacy......Page 192
Anchoring and Adjustment......Page 193
Counterfactual Thinking......Page 194
HOW DOES PRESENTATION INFLUENCE HOW WE THINK ABOUT THE WORLD?......Page 197
Framing......Page 198
Law CONNECTIONS The Power of Reconstructive Memory......Page 200
The Ease of Impression Formation......Page 201
Beliefs about How Traits Fit Together......Page 204
Business CONNECTIONS The Impact of Mood on Economic Decisions......Page 205
HOW DO BELIEFS CREATE REALITY?......Page 206
Health CONNECTIONS The Power of Belief......Page 207
People Maintain Beliefs Over Time......Page 210
Education CONNECTIONS The Overwhelming Power of Teacher’s Expectations......Page 213
Cognitive Errors......Page 215
Beliefs about Traits......Page 216
6 Attitude Formation and Change......Page 222
HOW DO WE FORM ATTITUDES?......Page 224
Classical Conditioning......Page 225
Observational Learning/Modeling......Page 228
Media CONNECTIONS The Dangerous Impact of Media Images of Smoking and Alcohol Use......Page 230
How Much Do Attitudes Matter?......Page 231
Strength......Page 232
Accessibility......Page 233
Social Norms......Page 234
WHEN DOES ENGAGING IN A BEHAVIOR LEAD TO ATTITUDE CHANGE?......Page 237
Cognitive Dissonance Theory......Page 238
Health CONNECTIONS Using Cognitive Dissonance Can Lead to Changes in Health Behavior......Page 241
Environment CONNECTIONS Using Cognitive Dissonance to Increase Water Conservation......Page 243
Revisions to Dissonance Theory......Page 244
Self-Perception Theory......Page 248
Self-Affirmation Theory......Page 249
Education CONNECTIONS Using Self-Affirmation Can Increase Academic Achievement......Page 250
Attitudes......Page 251
Cognitive Dissonance......Page 252
7 Persuasion......Page 258
Routes to Persuasion......Page 260
Factors That Influence Type of Processing Used......Page 261
Environment CONNECTIONS How Persuasive Messages Increase Recycling......Page 264
Source: Who Delivers the Message?......Page 265
Content of the Message......Page 268
Law CONNECTIONS The Benefits of “Stealing the Thunder”......Page 269
Audience......Page 271
The Impact of Emotional Appeals......Page 274
Health CONNECTIONS Why Having Wrinkles Is Worse Than Dying......Page 276
Business CONNECTIONS How Waiters and Waitresses Can Increase Tips......Page 277
The Impact of Subliminal Messages......Page 278
HOW CAN YOU RESIST PERSUASION?......Page 280
Reactance......Page 281
Attitude Importance......Page 282
HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT PERSUASION?......Page 284
The Effectiveness of Different Persuasive Messages......Page 285
8 Social Influence: Norms, Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience......Page 290
The Power of Social Norms......Page 292
Errors in Perceiving Social Norms......Page 294
The Pressure to Conform to Social Norms......Page 295
Health CONNECTIONS Why Misperceiving the Thinness Norm Can Lead to Eating Disorders......Page 296
Why We Conform......Page 298
Factors That Increase Conformity......Page 300
Media CONNECTIONS Why Publicizing Suicides May Be a Bad Idea......Page 301
The Power of Minority Influence......Page 304
Environment CONNECTIONS Why Conformity Can Decrease Littering......Page 305
WHAT FACTORS LEAD TO COMPLIANCE?......Page 306
Reciprocity......Page 307
Consistency and Commitment......Page 308
Scarcity......Page 309
The Serious Consequences of Compliance......Page 310
Law  CONNECTIONS The Impact of Compliance on False Identifications and False Confessions......Page 311
HOW DO SOCIAL PRESSURES INFLUENCE OBEDIENCE?......Page 312
Factors That Increase Obedience......Page 313
Ethical Issues......Page 318
Real-World Examples of Obedience......Page 319
Strategies for Resisting Obedience......Page 322
Conformity......Page 323
Compliance......Page 324
Obedience......Page 326
9 Group Influence: The Impact of Group Processes......Page 330
Social Facilitation......Page 332
Social Loafing......Page 336
Deindividuation......Page 337
Cohesion......Page 339
Group Polarization......Page 341
Groupthink......Page 343
The Power of Leadership......Page 347
Factors Leading to Conflict......Page 349
Strategies for Resolving Conflict......Page 352
Education CONNECTIONS The Power of the Jigsaw Classroom......Page 353
Business CONNECTIONS Using Mediation and Arbitration to Resolve Conflict......Page 355
Conflict Resolution in the Real World......Page 356
HOW DO GROUPS HANDLE SOCIAL DILEMMAS?......Page 357
Types of Social Dilemmas......Page 358
Solutions to Social Dilemmas......Page 360
Health CONNECTIONS Why Not Vaccinating Your Child Can Be Good for  You, but Bad for the Community......Page 361
Social Loafing......Page 365
Conflict......Page 366
Social Dilemmas......Page 367
10 Stereotypes, Prejudice,and Discrimination......Page 372
Social Learning......Page 374
	Social Categorization......Page 376
Law CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Cross-Race Identification......Page 378
Realistic Group Conflict Theory......Page 379
Social Identity Theory: The Role of Self-Esteem......Page 380
Cognitive Biases......Page 382
Assessing Stereotypes......Page 387
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING STEREOTYPED?......Page 389
Self-fulfilling Prophecy......Page 390
Stereotype Threat......Page 391
Education CONNECTIONS Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threats in the Classroom......Page 393
Reduced Psychological Well-Being......Page 394
Health CONNECTIONS The Impact of Racism on Physical Health......Page 395
Reverse Discrimination......Page 396
The Hazards of Positive Stereotypes......Page 397
IS STEREOTYPING INEVITABLE?......Page 399
Stereotypes Are Activated Automatically......Page 400
Disconfirming Evidence Is Ignored......Page 402
Subtle Discrimination Persists......Page 403
Business CONNECTIONS Examining the Effects of Affirmative Action Policies......Page 404
Increase Contact......Page 405
Provide Training and Education......Page 407
Be Motivated to Avoid Stereotyping......Page 408
Reliance on Cognitive Biases......Page 411
Types of Stereotypes......Page 412
11 Aggression......Page 418
Instinct and Evolutionary Theories......Page 420
Genetics......Page 422
Hormones......Page 424
Health CONNECTIONS The Link Between Alcohol Use and Aggression......Page 426
HOW DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCE AGGRESSION?......Page 427
Frustration-Aggression Theory......Page 428
Cognitive-Neoassociation Theory......Page 431
Excitation Transfer Theory......Page 433
Social Learning Theory......Page 434
General Aggression Model......Page 435
Models Aggression......Page 437
Primes Aggressive Thoughts and Feelings......Page 438
Creates Physiological Arousal......Page 439
Reduces Reactions to Aggression......Page 440
Media CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Violent Pornography......Page 441
HOW CAN WE REDUCE AGGRESSION?......Page 442
Training in Communication and Problem-Solving Skills......Page 443
Education CONNECTIONS The Problem of Bullying......Page 444
Increasing Empathy......Page 445
Prevalence of Aggression......Page 446
Prevalence of Domestic Violence......Page 447
Subcultural Differences in Aggression: The Culture of Honor......Page 448
12 Interpersonal Attraction and Close 	Relationships......Page 454
Physical Attractiveness......Page 456
Law CONNECTIONS Why Beautiful People Spend Less Time in Jail......Page 458
Relationship Factors......Page 463
Situational Factors......Page 464
Predictors of Attraction in Friendship......Page 467
Media CONNECTIONS Does the Internet Facilitate Intimacy or Inhibit It?......Page 469
Passionate-Companionate Love......Page 470
Triangular Theory......Page 471
Love Styles......Page 472
Why Does Love Matter?......Page 473
Health CONNECTIONS Why We Get By With a Little Help from Our Friends (and Pets)......Page 474
Social Exchange Theory......Page 475
Attachment Styles......Page 478
Positive Illusions......Page 481
Strategies for Increasing Relationship Satisfaction......Page 483
Conflict......Page 484
Jealousy......Page 487
Loneliness......Page 489
Relationship Dissolution......Page 492
Defining Beauty......Page 494
The Nature of Love......Page 495
The Nature of Friendships......Page 497
Business CONNECTIONS The Impact of Culture on Workplace Relationships......Page 498
13 Altruism and Prosocial Behavior......Page 502
Evolutionary Factors......Page 504
Health CONNECTIONS The Amazing Generosity of Living Organ Donors......Page 507
Religion......Page 509
Decision-Making Process Model......Page 510
Arousal/Cost-Reward Model......Page 515
Mood......Page 518
Environmental Factors......Page 520
Media CONNECTIONS Does Watching Sesame Street Lead to Prosocial Behavior?......Page 521
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis......Page 523
Negative-State Relief Hypothesis......Page 527
Comparing the Models......Page 529
Predicting Long-Term Helping......Page 530
Person Factors......Page 531
Social Norms......Page 533
Relationship Factors......Page 534
Law CONNECTIONS The Impact of Similarity of Race on Guilt......Page 535
The Downside of Receiving Help......Page 536
HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HELPING?......Page 537
Norms for Helping......Page 538
Motivations for Helping......Page 540
GLOSSARY......Page 544
REFERENCES......Page 550
NAME INDEX......Page 605
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 621