Social Psychology

Preface/xi
1 Understanding Social Behavior/1
	Social Psychology and the Understanding of Social Behavior/2
		A Model for Understanding Social Behavior/3
		Expanding Lewin’s Model/5
	Social Psychology and Related Fields/7
	Research in Social Psychology/9
		Experimental Research/10
		Correlational Research/15
		Settings for Social Psychological Research/16
		The Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research/16
		What Do We Learn from Research in Social Psychology?/20
		Ethics and Social Psychological Research/21
	Rick Rescorla and 9/11 Revisited/22
	Chapter Review/24
2 The Social Self/29
	Self-Concept/30
		Self-Knowledge: How We Know Thyself?/30
		The Self and Memory/32
		Religion and the Self/34
		The Self: The Influence of Groups and Culture/35
	Self-Esteem: Evaluating the Self/40
		Internal Influences on Self-Esteem/41
		Self-Esteem and Stigma/44
		Self-Esteem and Cultural Influences/45
		What’s So Good about High Self-Esteem?/45
		Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem/46
	Self-Control: How People Regulate Their Behavior/46
		Self-Control and Self-Regulation/46
		The Cost and Ironic Effects of Self-Control/48
	Thinking about Ourselves/49
		Self-Serving Cognitions/49
		Maintaining Self-Consistency/50
	Self-Awareness/51
		Self-Knowledge and Self-Awareness/52
	Managing Self-Presentations/53
		Self-Esteem and Impression Management/53
		Self-Monitoring and Impression Management 53 Self-Presentation and Manipulative Strategies/54
		Self-Handicapping/54
	The Impression We Make on Others/56
	The Life of James Carroll Revisited/57
	Chapter Review/58
3 Social Perception: Understanding Other People/61
	Impression Formation: Automaticity and Social Perception/63
		Automatic Processing/63
	The Impression Others Make on Us: How Do We “Read” People?/69
		How Accurate Are Our Impressions?/69
		Confi dence and Impression Formation/70
		If at First You Don’t Like Someone, You May Never Like Them/70
		Person Perception: Reading Faces and Catching Liars/71
	The Attribution Process: Deciding Why People Act As They Do/74
		Heider’s Early Work on Attribution/74
		Correspondent Inference Theory/75
		Covariation Theory/76
		Dual-Process Models/78
		Intentionality and Attributions/79
	Attribution Biases/80
		Misattributions/80
		The Fundamental Attribution Error/81
		The Actor-Observer Bias/83
		The False Consensus Bias/84
	Constructing an Impression of Others/84
		The Significance of First Impressions/84
		Schemas/85
		The Confirmation Bias/87
		Shortcuts to Reality: Heuristics/88
	Positive Psychology: Optimism, Cognition, Health, and Life/90
		Optimism and Cognition/90
		Optimism and Health/90
		Optimism and Happiness/91
		Cognitive Optimism: An Evolutionary Interpretation/95
		Bottom Line/95
	The Vincennes Revisited/96
	Chapter Review/96
4 Prejudice and Discrimination/103
	The Dynamics of Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination/104
		Prejudice/104
		Stereotypes/106
		Discrimination/112
	The Persistence and Recurrence of Prejudice and Stereotypes/112
	Individual Differences and Prejudice: Personality and Gender/114
		The Authoritarian Personality/114
		Social Dominance Orientation/116
		Openness to New Experience and Agreeableness/117
		Gender and Prejudice/117
	The Social Roots of Prejudice/118
		Modern Racism/120
		Changing Social Norms/122
	The Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: From Categories to Stereotypes/123
		Identification with the In-Group/125
		The Role of Language in Maintaining Bias/128
		The Confi rmation Bias/132
		The Out-Group Homogeneity Bias/132
		The Difference between Prejudiced and Nonprejudiced Individuals/134
	The Consequences of Being a Target of Prejudice/135
		Ways Prejudice Can Be Expressed/135
		Prejudice-Based Jokes/136
		Stereotype Threat/136
		Collective Threat/140
		Expecting to Be a Target of Prejudice/141
	Coping with Prejudice/141
		Raising the Value of a Stigmatized Group/141
		Making In-Group Comparisons/142
		Anticipating and Confronting Prejudice/142
		Compensating for Prejudice/143
	Reducing Prejudice/144
		Contact between Groups/144
		Personalizing Out-Group Members/146
		Reducing the Expression of Prejudice through Social Norms/146
		Reducing Prejudice through Training/147
		A Success Story: The Disarming of Racism in the U.S. Army/148
	The Mormon Experience Revisited/149
	Chapter Review/150
5 Attitudes/155
	What Are Attitudes?/157
		Allport’s Defi nition of Attitudes/157
		Attitude Structures 158 Attitudes as an Expression of Values/159
		Explicit and Implicit Attitudes/160
	How Are Attitudes Measured?/161
		The Attitude Survey/161
		Behavioral Measures/162
		Cognitive Measures: The Implicit Association Test (IAT)/163
	How Are Attitudes Formed?/164
		Mere Exposure/164
		Direct Personal Experience/165
		Operant and Classical Conditioning/165
		Observational Learning 166 The Effect of the Mass Media/167
		The Heritability Factor/169
		The Importance of Groups and Networks/170
		Social Networks/172
	Attitudes and Behavior/172
		An Early Study of Attitudes and Behavior/173
		Theory of Planned Behavior/174
		The Importance of Conviction/175
		The Nonrational Actor/177
	Why We Donʼt Like Those Who Think Differently Than We Do: Naïve Realism and Attitudes/179
	IDA Tarbell Revisited/181
	Chapter Review/181
6 Persuasion and Attitude Change/185
	The Yale Communication Model/186
		The Persuasion Process/186
		The Communicator/187
		The Message and the Audience 192ix/Contents
	The Cognitive Approach to Persuasion/199
		The Elaboration Likelihood Model/199
		The Effect of Mood on Processing/201
		The Effect of Personal Relevance on Processing/204
		The Impact of Attitude Accessibility on Elaboration/205
		Do Vivid Messages Persuade Better Than Nonvivid Messages?/206
		Need for Cognition: Some Like to Do It the Hard Way/207
		The Heuristic Model of Persuasion/208
	Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A Model of Self-Persuasion/209
		Cognitive Dissonance Theory/209
		Alternatives to Cognitive Dissonance Theory/217
	Persuading the Masses through Propaganda/220
		Propaganda: A Defi nition/220
		Characteristics of Propaganda/220
		The Aims of Propaganda/221
		Propaganda Techniques/222
		Hitler’s Rise to Power/223
	The Leopold and Loeb Case Revisited/226
	Chapter Review/226
7 Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience/231
	Conformity: Going Along with the Crowd/233
		Informational and Normative Social Influence/233
		Social Norms: The Key to Conformity/234
		Classic Studies in Conformity/235
		How Does Social Influence Bring About Conformity?/238
		Factors That Affect Conformity/239
	Minority Influence/243
		Can a Minority Influence the Majority?/244
		Majority and Minority Influence: Two Processes or One?/245
	Compliance: Responding to a Direct Request/247
		Foot-in-the-Door Technique/247
		Door-in-the-Face Technique/251
		Compliance Techniques: Summing Up/253
	Obedience/254
		Defining Obedience/255
		Destructive Obedience and the Social Psychology of Evil/256
		Milgram’s Experiments on Obedience/259
		The Role of Gender in Obedience/264
		Obedience or Aggression?/265
		Obedience across Culture, Situation, and Time/266
		Reevaluating Milgram’s Findings/267
		Critiques of Milgram’s Research/267
	Disobedience/269
		Breaking with Authority/269
		Reassessing the Legitimacy of the Authority/270
		Strength in Numbers/271
	The Jury Room Revisited/273
	Chapter Review/274
8 Group Processes/281
	What Is a Group?/282
		Characteristics of Groups/283
		What Holds a Group Together?/284
	How and Why Do Groups Form?/284
		Meeting Basic Needs/284
		Roles in Groups/285
	How Do Groups Influence the Behavior of Individuals?/286
		The Effects of an Audience on Performance/286
	Group Performance: Conditions That Decrease or Increase Motivation of Group Members/288
	Groups, Self-Identity, and Intergroup Relationships/292
		The Power of Groups to Punish: Social Ostracism/293
		Deindividuation and Anonymity: The Power of Groups to Do Violence/295
	Group Performance/296
		Individual Decisions and Group Decisions/296
		The Harder the Problem, the Better the Group/298
		The Effect of Leadership Style on Group Decision Making/300
	Factors That Affect the Decision-Making Ability of a Group/302
		Group Composition/302
		Group Size/304
		Group Cohesiveness/304
	The Dynamics of Group Decision Making: Decision Rules, Group Polarization, and Groupthink/305
		Group Decisions: How Groups Blend Individual Choices/305
		Group Polarization/306
		Groupthink/307
	The Challenger Explosion Revisited/309
	Chapter Review/310
9 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/315
	The Roots of Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships/317
		Affiliation and Intimacy/317
	Loneliness and Social Anxiety/318
		Loneliness/318
		Social Anxiety/319
		Love and Close Relationships/320
	Love’s Triangle/320
		Types of Love/322
		The Formation of Intimate Relationships/324
	Determinants of Interpersonal Attraction/327
		Physical Proximity: Being in the Right Place/327
		Similarity/329
		Physical Attractiveness/330
	Dynamics of Close Relationships/338
		Relationship Development/339
		Evaluating Relationships/340
		Exchange Theories/340
		Love over Time/343
		Sculpting a Relationship/343
		Responses to Confl ict/345
		Love in the Lab/347
		Friendships/348
	Gertrude and Alice Revisited/350
	Chapter Review/350
10 Interpersonal Aggression/357
	What Is Aggression?/358
		Levels and Types of Aggression/358
		Gender Differences in Aggression/360
		Explanations for Aggression/361
	Biological Explanations for Aggression/361
		Ethology/362
		Sociobiology/362
		Genetics and Aggression/363
		The Physiology of Aggression/364
		Alcohol and Aggression/366
		Physiology and Aggression: Summing Up/369
	The Frustration-Aggression Link/369
		Components of the Frustration-Aggression Sequence/370
		Factors Mediating the Frustration–Aggression Link/371
	The Social Learning Explanation for Aggression/373
		The Socialization of Aggression/374
		Aggressive Scripts: Why and How They Develop/376
		The Role of the Family in Developing Aggressive Behaviors/377
		Child Abuse and Neglect/380
		Family Disruption/380
		The Role of Culture in Violent Behavior/381
		The Role of Television in Teaching Aggression/385
		Exposure to Violent Video Games/387
	Viewing Sexual Violence: The Impact on Aggression/388
		The Impact of Sexually Violent Material on Attitudes/389
		Men Prone to Sexual Aggression: Psychological Characteristics/390
	Reducing Aggression/391
		Reducing Aggression in the Family/391
		Reducing Aggression with Cognitive Intervention and Therapy/392
	The Beltway Sniper Case Revisited/393
	Chapter Review/394
11 Prosocial Behavior and Altruism/401
	Why Do People Help?/403
		Empathy: Helping in Order to Relieve Another’s Suffering/403
		Empathy and Egoism: Two Paths to Helping/404
		Biological Explanations: Helping in Order to Preserve Our Own Genes/408
	Helping in Emergencies: A Five-Stage Decision Model/410
		Stage 1: Noticing the Situation/411
		Stage 2: Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/412
		Stage 3: Assuming Responsibility to Help: The Bystander Effect/413
		Stage 4: Deciding How to Help/418
		Stage 5: Implementing the Decision to Help/418
	Increasing the Chances of Receiving Help/426
	Courageous Resistance and Heroism/426
		Explaining Courageous Resistance and Heroism: The Role of Personality/428
		Righteous Rescuers in Nazi-Occupied Europe/429
		A Synthesis: Situational and Personality Factors in Altruism/434
	Applying the Five-Stage Decision Model to Long-Term Helping/437
		Noticing the Situation/437
		Labeling the Situation as an Emergency/438
		Assuming Responsibility to Help/438
		Deciding How to Help/438
		Implementing the Decision to Help/438
	Altruistic Behavior from the Perspective of the Recipient/439
		Seeking Help from Others/439
		Reacting to Help When It Is Given/441
	Irene Opdyke Revisited/444
	Chapter Review/444
Glossary/G-1
References/R-1
Name Index/I-1
Subject Index/I-11