Social Psychology

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents in Brief......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 8
About the Authors......Page 24
Preface......Page 26
Acknowledgments......Page 34
1 What is Social Psychology?......Page 38
The Scientific Study . . .......Page 40
. . . of the Effects of Social and Cognitive Processes . . .......Page 41
. . . on the Way Individuals Perceive, Influence, and Relate to Others......Page 42
Social Psychology Becomes an Empirical Science......Page 44
Social Psychology Splits from General Psychology Over What Causes Behavior......Page 45
The Rise of Nazism Shapes the Development of Social Psychology......Page 46
Growth and Integration......Page 47
Integration with Other Research Trends......Page 48
Integration of Basic Science and Social Problems......Page 49
How the Approach of This Book Reflects an Integrative Perspective......Page 51
Construction of Reality......Page 52
Pervasiveness of Social Influence......Page 53
People Value "Me and Mine"......Page 54
Superficiality Versus Depth: People Can Process Superficially or In Dep......Page 55
Plan of the Book......Page 57
Summary......Page 59
2 Asking and Answering Research Questions......Page 61
A Note to the Student on How to Use This Chapter......Page 62
What Is a Scientific Theory?......Page 63
Construct Validity and Measurement......Page 65
Threats to Construct Validity......Page 66
Ensuring Construct Validity by Using Appropriate Measures......Page 67
Internal Validity and Types of Research Design......Page 69
Threats to Internal Validity......Page 70
Ensuring Internal Validity......Page 71
Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research Designs......Page 72
External Validity and Research Populations and Settings......Page 73
Generalizing to Versus Generalizing Across People and Places......Page 74
External Validity and Research Participants......Page 75
Cultures and External Validity......Page 76
External Validity and Laboratory Research......Page 77
External Validity and Nonlaboratory Research......Page 78
Ensuring External Validity......Page 79
Evaluating Theories: The Bottom Line......Page 80
The Importance of Replication......Page 81
Competition with Other Theories......Page 82
Getting the Bias Out......Page 83
The Role of Ethics and Values in Research......Page 84
Being Fair to Participants......Page 85
The Use of Deception in Research......Page 86
Being Helpful to Society......Page 88
Concluding Comments......Page 89
Summary......Page 90
3 Perceiving Individuals......Page 92
Forming First Impressions: Cues, Interpretations, and Inferences......Page 93
Impressions From Physical Appearance......Page 94
Impressions from Nonverbal Communication......Page 96
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Can You Judge a Book by Its Cover?......Page 97
Social Psychology in Practice: Lie Detection in the Legal System......Page 98
Impressions from Behavior......Page 99
Which Cues Capture Attention?......Page 100
The Role of Associations in Interpretation......Page 101
Accessibility from Concurrent Activation......Page 102
Accessibility from Recent Activation......Page 103
Accessibility from Frequent Activation......Page 104
Social Psychology in Practice: Accessibility of Sexism from the Media......Page 105
Characterizing the Behaving Person: Correspondent Inferences......Page 106
Limits on the Correspondence Bias......Page 107
Social Psychology in Practice: Correspondence Bias in the Workplace......Page 109
Beyond First Impressions: Systematic Processing......Page 110
Sources of Attribution......Page 111
Using Attributions to Correct First Impressions......Page 113
Integrating Multiple Traits......Page 115
The Accuracy of Considered Impressions......Page 116
Motive for Accuracy......Page 117
Attempting to Undo Biases......Page 118
Superficial Processing: Using a Single Attribute......Page 120
Impressions Shape Interpretations......Page 121
Impressions Resist Rebuttal......Page 122
Selectively Seeking Impression-Consistent Behavior......Page 123
Creating Impression-Consistent Behavior: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy......Page 124
Limits on the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy......Page 125
Reconciling Inconsistencies......Page 126
Altering Impressions: Is Fundamental Change Possible?......Page 127
Concluding Comments......Page 128
Summary......Page 130
4 The Self......Page 132
Sources of the Self-Concept......Page 133
Learning Who We Are from Our Own Behavior......Page 134
Learning Who We Are from Other People’s Reactions......Page 135
Learning Who We Are from Social Comparison......Page 136
Learning About Self and Others: The Same or Different?......Page 137
Differences in Inferences......Page 138
Multiple Selves......Page 140
Putting It All Together: Constructing a Coherent Self-Concept......Page 141
Social Psychology and Culture: Cultural Differences in the Self Concept......Page 143
Constructing Self-Esteem: How We Feel about Ourselves......Page 144
Balancing Accuracy and Enhancement......Page 145
Evaluating Personal Experiences: Some Pain but Mainly Gain......Page 146
Social Comparisons: Better or Worse than Others?......Page 147
Why Self-Enhance?......Page 148
Social Psychology and Culture: Self-Esteem and Self-Enhancement in Cultural Context......Page 150
The Self and Emotions......Page 151
How Do Emotions Arise?......Page 152
Appraisals, Emotions, Bodily Responses: All Together Now......Page 154
Self-Expression and Self-Presentation......Page 156
Personality Differences In Preference for Self Expression and Self Presentation: Self-Monitoring......Page 157
Regulating Behavior to Achieve a Desired Self......Page 158
From Self to Behavior, and Back Again......Page 159
Temptations That May Derail Self-Regulation......Page 160
Negative Effects of Not Reaching Goals......Page 161
Defending the Self: Coping With Stresses, Inconsistencies, and Failures......Page 162
Emotional and Physical Effects of Threat......Page 163
Social Psychology in Practice: Control and Depression......Page 165
Escaping from Threat......Page 166
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Awareness of Personal Mortality as a Psychological Threat......Page 167
Working Through Threat by Writing About It......Page 168
Making Excuses: It’s Not My Fault......Page 169
Taking Control of the Problem......Page 170
Social Psychology in Practice: Control and Life Goals......Page 171
Self-Esteem as a Resource for Coping......Page 172
Controllability and Coping......Page 173
Concluding Comments......Page 174
Summary......Page 175
5 Perceiving Groups......Page 178
Targets of Prejudice: Social Groups......Page 180
Social Categorization: Dividing the World into Social Groups......Page 181
Stereotypes Include Many Types of Characteristics......Page 183
Stereotypes Can Be Either Positive or Negative......Page 184
Stereotypes Can Be Accurate or Inaccurate......Page 185
Seeking the Motives behind Stereotyping......Page 186
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Mastery through Summarizing Personal Experiences......Page 187
Between-Group Interactions Generate Emotion......Page 188
People Notice Some Members More Than Others......Page 189
Some Information Attracts More Attention Than Other Information......Page 190
Social Roles and Gender Stereotypes......Page 191
Learning Stereotypes from the Media......Page 193
Gender Stereotypes and the Media......Page 195
Social Communication of Stereotypes......Page 196
Motives for Forming Stereotypes: Justifying Inequalities......Page 197
Activation of Stereotypes and Prejudice......Page 199
Stereotypes Can Be Activated Automatically......Page 200
Prejudice Can Be Activated Automatically......Page 201
Measuring Stereotypes and Prejudice......Page 202
Impact of Stereotypes on Judgments and Actions......Page 204
Effects of Cognitive Capacity......Page 205
Effects of Power......Page 207
Suppressing Stereotypes and Prejudice......Page 208
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Who Can Suppress Stereotype Activation?......Page 209
Correcting Biased Judgments......Page 210
Beyond Simple Activation: Effects of Stereotypes on Considered Judgments......Page 211
Interpreting Evidence to Fit the Stereotype: Well, If You Look at It That Way......Page 212
Constraining Evidence to Fit the Stereotype: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy......Page 213
Social Psychology in Practice: Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in School and at Work......Page 214
Changing Stereotypes and Reducing Prejudice......Page 215
Explaining Away Inconsistent Information......Page 216
Differentiating Atypical Group Members: Contrast Effects......Page 217
Repeated Inconsistency: An Antidote for "Explaining Away"......Page 218
Being Typical as Well as Inconsistent: An Antidote for Contrast Effects......Page 219
Reducing Prejudice Through Contact......Page 221
Social Psychology in Practice: Intergroup Contact in the Wild......Page 222
Concluding Comments......Page 223
Summary......Page 224
6 Social Identity......Page 227
Learning About Our Groups......Page 229
Direct Reminders of Membership......Page 230
Conflict or Rivalry......Page 231
Social Psychology and Culture: Cultural Differences in the Importance of Group Membership......Page 232
Me, You, and Them: Effects of Social Categorization......Page 233
Liking Ourselves: Social Identity and Self-Esteem......Page 234
Social Identity and Emotions......Page 235
Others Become "We": Social Categorization and the In-Group......Page 236
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Is the Self Similar to In-Group, or Is the In-Group Similar to Self?......Page 237
Liking-In-Group Members: To Be Us Is to Be Lovable......Page 238
Treating the In-Group Right: Justice and Altruism......Page 239
Others Become "They": Social Categorization and the Out-Group......Page 240
Perceiving the Out-Group as Homogeneous: "They're All Alike!"......Page 241
Social Psychology in Practice: Out-Group Homogeneity in Eyewitness Identification......Page 242
Effects of Mere Categorization: Minimal Groups......Page 243
Discrimination and Social Identity......Page 244
Effects of Perceived Mild Threat......Page 245
Effects of Perceived Extreme Threat: Moral Exclusion and Hate Crimes......Page 246
They Don’t Like Us: Consequences of Belonging to Negatively Perceived Groups......Page 248
We Are Stigmatized: Effects on What We Do and How We Feel......Page 249
Effects on Performance......Page 250
Effects on Self-Esteem......Page 251
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Sports Defeats, Collective Self-Esteem, and Unhealthy Behavior......Page 252
Using Attributions to Advantage......Page 253
Social Psychology in Practice: Attributional Ambiguity in the Workplace......Page 254
Individual Mobility: Escaping Negative Group Membership......Page 255
Disidentification: Putting the Group at a Psychological Distance......Page 256
Dissociation: Putting the Group at a Physical Distance......Page 257
Social Creativity: Redefining Group Membership as Positive......Page 258
Social Competition......Page 259
Social Competition or Prejudice Reduction: Mutually Exclusive Goals?......Page 260
One Goal, Many Strategies......Page 262
Concluding Comments......Page 264
Summary......Page 265
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change......Page 267
Measuring Attitudes......Page 268
Attitude Function......Page 270
Social Psychology in Practice: Attitude Functions and the Environment......Page 272
The Informational Base of Attitudes......Page 273
Putting It All Together......Page 275
Superficial and Systematic Routes to Persuasion: From Snap Judgments to Considered Opinions......Page 277
Attitudes by Association......Page 279
The Familiarity Heuristic: Familiarity Makes the Heart Grow Fonder......Page 282
The Attractiveness Heuristic: Agreeing with Those We Like......Page 283
The Expertise Heuristic: Agreeing with Those Who Know......Page 285
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Competence and Trustworthiness......Page 286
The Message-Length Heuristic: Length Equals Strength......Page 287
Systematic Processing: Thinking Persuasion Through......Page 288
Processing Information about the Attitude Object......Page 289
The Consequences of Systematic Processing......Page 291
Superficial and Systematic Processing: Which Strategy, When?......Page 292
How Motivation Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing......Page 293
Social Psychology and Culture: Culture and Connectedness Matching......Page 296
Social Psychology in Practice: Cognitive Ability and Advertising Aimed at Children......Page 297
How Moods and Emotions Influence Superficial and Systematic Persuasive Processing......Page 298
Social Psychology in Practice: Motivation and Capacity Consequences of Fear-Inducing Health Messages......Page 300
The Interplay of Cues and Content......Page 301
Defending Attitudes: Resisting Persuasion......Page 303
Ignoring, Reinterpreting, and Countering Attitude-Inconsistent Information......Page 304
Inoculation: Practice Can Be the Best Resistance Medicine......Page 305
What it Takes to Resist Persuasion......Page 306
Concluding Comments......Page 308
Summary......Page 309
8 Attitudes and Behavior......Page 311
Changing Attitudes with Actions......Page 312
Associations with Action......Page 313
Inferences from Action: Self-Perception Theory......Page 314
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Could You Do This Small Thing (First)?......Page 316
Social Psychology in Practice: Self-Perception Processes and Health......Page 317
Cognitive Dissonance: Changing Attitudes to Justify Behavior......Page 318
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance......Page 319
Justifying Attitude-Discrepant Behavior: I Have My Reasons!......Page 322
Justifying Effort: I Suffered for It, so I Like It......Page 323
Justifying Decisions: Of Course I Was Right!......Page 324
The Processing Payoff: Justifying Inconsistent Actions Creates Persistent Attitudes......Page 325
Alternatives to Attitude Change......Page 326
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Dissonance and Diet......Page 327
Which Dissonance Reduction Strategy Is Used?......Page 328
Social Psychology and Culture: Cultural Differences and Dissonance......Page 330
Changing Actions with Attitudes......Page 331
Attitudes Guide Behavior Without Much Thought......Page 332
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Evaluating is Seeing......Page 333
Attitudes Guide Behavior Through Considered Intentions......Page 334
Attitude Accessibility......Page 337
Attitude Correspondence......Page 339
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes as Guides for Behavior......Page 340
When Attitudes Are Not Enough......Page 341
Concluding Comments......Page 343
Summary......Page 345
9 Norms and Conformity......Page 347
What Are Social Norms?......Page 349
Public Versus Private Conformity......Page 352
Social Psychology and Culture: Conformity and Culture......Page 353
Expecting Consensus......Page 354
Norms Fulfill Mastery Motives......Page 355
Norms Fulfill Connectedness Motives......Page 357
Whose Consensus? Me and Mine Norms Are the Ones that Count......Page 358
Social Psychology in Practice: Reference Group Effects in Food Preference......Page 360
Mastery, Connectedness, or Me and Mine?......Page 361
How Groups Form Norms: Processes of Social Influence......Page 362
Group Polarization: Going to Normative Extremes......Page 363
Superficial Processing: Relying on Others’ Positions......Page 364
Systematic Processing: Attending to Both Positions and Arguments......Page 366
Undermining True Consensus......Page 368
Consensus Without Consideration: Unthinking Reliance on Consensus......Page 369
Consensus Without Independence: Contamination......Page 370
Consensus Without Acceptance: Public Conformity......Page 372
Social Psychology in Practice: Pluralistic Ignorance and Health Risk Behavior......Page 373
Consensus Seeking at Its Worst: Groupthink......Page 374
Minority Influence: The Value of Dissent......Page 376
Offering an Alternative Consensus......Page 377
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Consequences of Norm Mismatch......Page 379
Promoting Systematic Processing......Page 380
Social Psychology in Practice: Minority Influence in the Courtroom......Page 381
Processes of Minority and Majority Influence......Page 382
Beyond Minority Influence: Using Norms to Strengthen Consensus......Page 383
Concluding Comments......Page 384
Summary......Page 386
10 Norms and Behavior......Page 388
Activating Norms to Guide Behavior......Page 390
Environments Activate Norms......Page 391
Groups Activate Norms......Page 392
Deindividuation......Page 393
Descriptive Norms as Guides for Behavior......Page 396
Social Psychology in Practice: Using Norms to Influence Health Behaviors......Page 397
The Interplay of Descriptive and Injunctive Norms......Page 398
Enforcement: Do It, or Else......Page 399
Private Acceptance: It’s Right and Proper, So I Do It......Page 400
Norms for Mastery and Connectedness: Reciprocity and Commitment......Page 401
Returning Favors......Page 402
Reciprocating Concessions: The Door-in-the-Face Technique......Page 404
The Norm of Social Commitment......Page 405
The Low-Ball Technique......Page 406
The Norm of Obedience: Submitting to Authority......Page 407
Milgram's Studies of Obedience......Page 408
Attempting to Explain Obedience......Page 409
Social Psychology in Practice: Obedience in Organizations......Page 410
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Obedience in Virtual Reality......Page 411
Authority Must Be Legitimate......Page 412
Authority Must Accept Responsibility......Page 413
The Norm of Obedience Must Be Activated......Page 414
Maintaining and Escalating Ob......Page 416
Normative Trade-Offs: The Pluses and Minuses of Obedience......Page 417
Resisting, Rejecting, and Rebelling Against Norms......Page 418
Reactance......Page 419
Resisting and Rejecting Norms Using Systematic Processing......Page 420
Using Norms Against Norms......Page 422
Putting It All Together: Multiple Guides for Behavior......Page 424
The Superficial Route......Page 425
The Thoughtful Route......Page 426
When Attitudes and Norms Conflict: Accessibility Determines Behavior......Page 428
Concluding Comments......Page 429
Summary......Page 431
11 Interaction and Performance in Groups......Page 433
Social Facilitation: Effects of Minimal Interdependence......Page 434
Social Facilitation: Improvement and Impairment......Page 435
Evaluation Apprehension......Page 436
Social Psychology in Practice: Evaluation Apprehension in the Workplace and the Classroom: Monitoring and Performance......Page 437
Distraction......Page 438
Performance in Face-To-Face Groups: Interaction and Interdependence......Page 439
How Groups Change: Stages of Group Development......Page 440
Group Socialization: Mutual Evaluation by Members and Groups......Page 441
Group Development: Coming Together, Falling Apart......Page 442
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Preference for Hierarchy......Page 443
Time and Group Development......Page 445
Being Pushed Out of Groups: Rejection and Ostracism......Page 446
Forms of Task Interdependence......Page 448
Gains and Losses in Group Performance......Page 449
Losses from Decreased Motivation: Social Loafing......Page 450
Social Psychology in Practice: Social Loafifing in the Classroom......Page 452
Losses from Poor Coordination......Page 453
Processes that Affect Performance: Group Communication......Page 454
Technology and Communication......Page 455
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Virtual Minority Inflfluence......Page 456
Cures for Group Performance Losses......Page 457
What Do Leaders Do?......Page 462
Leadership Effectiveness: Person or Situation?......Page 463
Social Psychology in Practice: Coaching Leadership in Youth Sports......Page 464
Who Becomes Leader?......Page 465
Stereotypes and Leadership......Page 467
Putting the Group First: Transformational Leadership......Page 469
Power......Page 470
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Power Poses......Page 471
Concluding Comments......Page 472
Summary......Page 473
12 Attraction, Relationships, and Love......Page 475
Challenges in Studying Attraction, Relationships, and Love......Page 476
From Attraction to Liking......Page 477
Biological Bases of Physical Attractiveness......Page 478
Experiential Bases of Physical Attractiveness......Page 479
Why Similarity Increases Liking......Page 481
Positive Interaction......Page 483
Why Interaction Increases Liking......Page 484
From Acquaintance to Friend: Relationship Development......Page 486
Exchanges of Rewards: What’s in It for Me and for You?......Page 487
Effects of Self-Disclosure......Page 488
Social Psychology and Culture: Self-Disclosure and Culture......Page 489
Cognitive Interdependence: The Partner Becomes Part of the Self......Page 490
Behavioral Interdependence: Transformations in Exchange......Page 492
Affective Interdependence: Intimacy and Commitment......Page 494
Social Psychology in Practice: Intimate Interactions and Health......Page 495
Commitment......Page 497
Individual Differences in Close Relationships: Attachment Styles......Page 498
Romantic Love, Passion, and Sexuality......Page 501
Passionate Feelings......Page 502
Mate Preference: Who’s Looking for What?......Page 503
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Finding and Meeting Romantic Partners Online......Page 504
Sex in the Context of a Romantic Relationship......Page 505
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Sexual Orientation, Sexual Attraction, and Romantic Love......Page 506
Threats to Relationships......Page 507
Constructive and Destructive Accommodation to Negative Acts......Page 508
Resources for Constructive Accommodation......Page 510
Social Psychology in Practice: Relationship Conflflict and Clinical Psychology......Page 512
Break-Up, Bereavement, and Loneliness......Page 513
Till Death Do Us Part......Page 514
Loneliness......Page 515
Concluding Comments......Page 516
Summary......Page 517
13 Aggression and Conflict......Page 519
Defining Aggression and Conflict......Page 520
Origins of Aggression......Page 521
Research on Aggression......Page 522
What Causes Interpersonal Aggression? The Role of Rewards and Respect......Page 523
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Gender and Aggression......Page 524
Responding to Threats......Page 525
Social Psychology and Culture: Cultural Norms and Responses to Threat......Page 526
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Disgust and Aggression......Page 527
Models of Aggression......Page 528
Social Psychology in Practice: Aggressive Models in the Media......Page 529
Learned Cues to Aggression......Page 530
Deciding Whether or Not to Aggress......Page 531
Putting It All Together: The General Aggression Model......Page 533
Intergroup Conflict......Page 534
Sources of Intergroup Conflict: The Battle for Riches and Respect......Page 535
Realistic Conflict Theory: Getting the Goods......Page 536
Social Competition: Getting a Little Respect......Page 537
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Often Value Respect over Riches......Page 538
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: When Conflict Arises, Groups Close Ranks......Page 539
Talking to the Out-Group: Back Off, or Else!......Page 540
Vicarious Retribution: They Hurt Us, Now I Hurt Them......Page 542
Polarized Perceptions of In-Group and Out-Group......Page 543
The Impact of Emotion and Arousal: More Heat, Less Light......Page 545
"Final Solutions": Eliminating the Out-Group......Page 547
The Special Competitiveness of Groups: Groups Offer Social Support for Competitiveness......Page 548
Final Solutions in History......Page 549
Reducing Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict and Aggression......Page 550
Promote Norms of Non-Aggression......Page 551
Interpret, and Interpret Again......Page 552
Types of Solutions......Page 553
Achieving Solutions: The Negotiation Process......Page 554
Mediation and Arbitration: Bringing in Third Parties......Page 555
Social Psychology and Culture: Negotiating across Cultural Lines......Page 556
Superordinate Goals......Page 557
Why Does Intergroup Cooperation Work?......Page 558
Concluding Comments......Page 561
Summary......Page 562
14 Helping and Cooperation......Page 564
Perceiving Need......Page 566
Judging Deservingness......Page 567
Is Helping Up to Me? Diffusion of Responsibility......Page 568
When Norms Make Helping Inappropriate......Page 570
When Norms Make Helping Appropriate......Page 571
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Religion and Prosocial Behavior......Page 572
Biological Perspectives: Is Prosocial Behavior in Our Genes?......Page 573
Rewards and Costs of Helping......Page 575
Emotional Rewards of Helping......Page 576
Is Helping Pure Egoism?......Page 577
Helping for Connectedness: Empathy and Altruism......Page 578
Mastery and Connectedness in Cooperation......Page 581
Social Dilemmas: Self-Interest Versus Group Interest......Page 582
Mastery Motives in Social Dilemmas: Rewards and Costs......Page 583
The Role of Trust......Page 584
Connectedness Motives in Social Dilemmas: Social Identification......Page 585
Individual Differences in Cooperation......Page 587
The Impact of Processing......Page 588
Systematic Processing, Planned Helping......Page 589
Social Psychology in Practice: Helping in Organizations......Page 590
Help That Helps; Help That Hurts......Page 591
Increasing Prosocial Behavior in Society......Page 592
Hot Topics in Social Psychology: Global-Scale Social Dilemmas Require Global Cooperation......Page 594
Concluding Comments......Page 595
Summary......Page 597
Core Principles of Social Psychology......Page 599
How the Principles Interrelate......Page 601
An Invitation to Social Psychology......Page 602
Photo and Cartoon Credits......Page 603
Glossary......Page 604
References......Page 614
Author Index......Page 703
Subject Index......Page 729