Social Psychology, Global Edition

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Brief Contents......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgements......Page 16
About the Authors......Page 17
Chapter 1: Social Psychology The Science of the Social Side of Life......Page 18
 1.1: Social Psychology: What It Is and Is Not......Page 21
  1.1.1: Social Psychology Is Scientific in Nature......Page 22
  1.1.2: Social Psychology Focuses on the Behavior of Individuals......Page 25
  1.1.3: Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior......Page 26
  1.1.4: The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World......Page 29
 1.2: Social Psychology: Advances at the Boundaries......Page 31
  1.2.3: Social Relationships: How Important They Are for Well-Being......Page 32
  1.2.4: Social Neuroscience: The Intersection of Social Psychology and Brain Research......Page 34
  1.2.5: The Role of Implicit (Nonconscious) Processes......Page 37
  1.2.6: Taking Full Account of Social Diversity......Page 38
  1.3.1: Systematic Observation: Describing the World Around Us......Page 39
  1.3.2: Correlation: The Search for Relationships......Page 41
  1.3.3: The Experimental Method: Knowledge Through Systematic Intervention......Page 43
  1.3.5: Meta-Analysis: Assessing a Body of Knowledge......Page 47
 1.4: The Role of Theory in Social Psychology......Page 48
 1.5: The Quest for Knowledge and the Rights of Individuals: Seeking an Appropriate Balance......Page 50
 Summary and Review......Page 53
Chapter 2: Social Cognition How We Think About the Social World......Page 55
 2.1: Heuristics: How We Employ Simple Rules in Social Cognition......Page 58
  2.1.1: Representativeness: Judging by Resemblance......Page 59
  2.1.2: Availability: “If I Can Recall Many Instances, They Must Be Frequent?”......Page 60
  2.1.3: Anchoring and Adjustment: Where You Begin Makes a Difference......Page 62
  2.1.4: Status Quo Heuristic: “What Is, Is Good”......Page 64
 What Research Tells Us About… People’s Preference for the Status Quo......Page 65
 2.2: Schemas: Mental Frameworks for Organizing Social Information......Page 66
  2.2.2: Priming: Which Schema Guides Our Thought?......Page 67
  2.2.3: Schema Persistence: Why Even Discredited Schemas Can Influence Thought and Behavior......Page 68
  2.2.4: Reasoning by Metaphor: How Social Attitudes and Behavior Are Affected by Figures of Speech......Page 69
 2.3: Automatic and Controlled Processing in Social Thought......Page 71
  2.3.1: Automatic Processing and Automatic Social Behavior......Page 72
  2.3.2: Benefits of Automatic Processing: Beyond Mere Efficiency......Page 73
 2.4: Potential Sources of Error in Social Cognition: Why Total Rationality Is Rarer Than You Think......Page 74
  2.4.1: Our Powerful Tendency to Be Overly Optimistic......Page 75
  2.4.2: Situation-Specific Sources of Error in Social Cognition: Counterfactual Thinking and Magical Thinking......Page 79
 2.5: Affect and Cognition: How Feelings Shape Thought and Thought Shapes Feelings......Page 82
  2.5.1: The Influence of Affect on Cognition......Page 83
  2.5.2: The Influence of Cognition on Affect......Page 84
  2.5.3: Affect and Cognition: Social Neuroscience Evidence for Two Separate Systems......Page 86
 What Research Tells Us About… Why Not Controlling Ourselves Can Make Us Feel Good......Page 87
 Summary and Review......Page 88
Chapter 3: Social Perception Seeking to Understand Others......Page 90
 3.1: Nonverbal Communication: An Unspoken Language......Page 92
  3.1.1: Basic Channels of Nonverbal Communication......Page 93
  3.1.2: Nonverbal Cues in Social Life......Page 97
  3.1.3: Recognizing Deception......Page 99
 What Research Tells Us About… The Role of Nonverbal Cues in Job Interviews......Page 103
  3.2.1: Theories of Attribution: How We Attempt to Make Sense of the Social World......Page 104
  3.2.2: Basic Sources of Error in Attribution......Page 109
 What Research Tells Us About… Why Some People Conclude They Are Superior to Others......Page 113
  3.2.3: Applications of Attribution Theory: Interventions and Insights......Page 114
 3.3: Impression Formation and Management: Combining Information About Others......Page 116
  3.3.1: Impression Formation......Page 117
  3.3.2: Impression Management......Page 120
 Summary and Review......Page 122
Chapter 4: The Self Answering the Question “Who Am I?”......Page 124
 4.1: Self-Presentation: Managing the Self in Different Social Contexts......Page 126
  4.1.1: Self–Other Accuracy in Predicting Our Behavior......Page 127
  4.1.2: Self-Presentation Tactics......Page 129
  4.2.1: Introspection: Looking Inward to Discover the Causes of Our Own Behavior......Page 131
  4.2.2: The Self from the Observer’s Standpoint......Page 133
 4.3: Personal Identity Versus Social Identity......Page 134
  4.3.1: Who I Think I Am Depends on the Social Context......Page 136
  4.3.2: Who I Am Depends on Others’ Treatment......Page 139
 What Research Tells Us About… The Importance of Belonging and Group Ties......Page 141
  4.3.4: Why Self-Control Can Be Difficult to Achieve......Page 142
 4.4: Social Comparison: How We Evaluate Ourselves......Page 144
  4.4.1: Self-Serving Biases and Unrealistic Optimism......Page 147
 4.5: Self-Esteem: Attitudes Toward Ourselves......Page 148
  4.5.1: The Measurement of Self-Esteem......Page 149
  4.5.2: How Migration Affects Self-Esteem......Page 151
  4.5.3: Do Women and Men Differ in Their Level of Self-Esteem?......Page 153
 What Research Tells Us About… Perceived Discrimination and Self-Esteem......Page 154
 4.6: The Self as a Target of Prejudice......Page 155
  4.6.1: Concealing Our Identity: How Well-Being Can Suffer......Page 156
  4.6.2: Overcoming the Effects of Stereotype Threat......Page 157
 Summary and Review......Page 160
Chapter 5: Attitudes Evaluating and Responding to the Social World......Page 162
  5.1.1: Classical Conditioning: Learning Based on Association......Page 169
  5.1.2: Instrumental Conditioning: Rewards for the “Right” Views......Page 171
  5.1.3: Observational Learning: Learning by Exposure to Others......Page 173
 What Research Tells Us About… Social Modeling and Eating......Page 174
 5.2: When and Why Do Attitudes Influence Behavior?......Page 175
  5.2.1: Role of the Social Context in the Link Between Attitudes and Behavior......Page 176
  5.2.3: Attitude Extremity: Role of Vested Interests......Page 177
  5.2.4: Attitude Certainty: Importance of Clarity and Correctness......Page 179
  5.2.5: Role of Personal Experience......Page 180
  5.3.1: Attitudes Arrived at Through Reasoned Thought......Page 181
  5.3.2: Attitudes and Spontaneous Behavioral Reactions......Page 182
 5.4: The Science of Persuasion: How Attitudes Are Changed......Page 183
  5.4.1: Persuasion: Communicators, Messages, and Audiences......Page 184
  5.4.2: The Cognitive Processes Underlying Persuasion......Page 187
  5.5.2: Forewarning: Prior Knowledge of Persuasive Intent......Page 190
  5.5.4: Actively Defending Our Attitudes: Counterarguing Against the Competition......Page 191
  5.5.6: Ego-Depletion Can Undermine Resistance......Page 192
  5.6.1: Dissonance and Attitude Change: The Effects of Induced Compliance......Page 194
  5.6.2: Alternative Strategies for Resolving Dissonance......Page 195
  5.6.3: When Dissonance Is a Tool for Beneficial Changes in Behavior......Page 196
 What Research Tells Us About… Culture and Attitude Processes......Page 198
 Summary and Review......Page 199
Chapter 6: Causes and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination......Page 201
 6.1: How Members of Different Groups Perceive Inequality......Page 204
 What Research Tells Us About… Biases in Our Beliefs About Inequality......Page 207
 6.2: The Nature and Origins of Stereotyping......Page 208
  6.2.1: Stereotyping: Beliefs About Social Groups......Page 209
  6.2.2: Is Stereotyping Absent If Members of Different Groups Are Rated the Same?......Page 214
  6.2.3: Can We Be Victims of Stereotyping and Not Even Recognize It: The Case of Single People......Page 216
  6.2.4: Why Do People Form and Use Stereotypes?......Page 217
 6.3: Prejudice: Feelings Toward Social Groups......Page 219
  6.3.1: The Origins of Prejudice: Contrasting Perspectives......Page 222
 What Research Tells Us About… The Role of Existential Threat in Prejudice......Page 227
  6.4.1: Modern Racism: More Subtle, but Just as Harmful......Page 228
  6.5.2: The Potential Benefits of Contact......Page 232
  6.5.3: Recategorization: Changing the Boundaries......Page 233
  6.5.5: Can We Learn to “Just Say No” to Stereotyping and Biased Attributions?......Page 234
  6.5.6: Social Influence as a Means of Reducing Prejudice......Page 236
 Summary and Review......Page 237
Chapter 7: Liking, Love, and Other Close Relationships......Page 239
 7.1: Internal Sources of Liking Others: The Role of Needs and Emotions......Page 241
  7.1.1: The Importance of Affiliation in Human Existence: The Need to Belong......Page 242
  7.1.2: The Role of Affect: Do Our Moods Play a Role in Liking Others?......Page 244
  7.2.1: The Power of Proximity: Unplanned Contacts......Page 246
  7.2.2: Physical Beauty: Its Role in Interpersonal Attraction......Page 248
 What Research Tells Us About… Dramatic Differences in Appearance Between Partners: Is Love Really Blind?......Page 253
  7.3.1: Similarity: Birds of a Feather Actually Do Flock Together......Page 255
  7.3.3: Social Skills: Liking People Who Are Good at Interacting with Others......Page 259
  7.3.4: Personality and Liking: Why People with Certain Traits Are More Attractive Than Others......Page 261
  7.3.5: What Do We Desire in Others? Gender Differences and Changes over Stages of a Relationship......Page 262
  7.4.1: Romantic Relationships and the (Partially Solved) Mystery of Love......Page 264
  7.4.2: What Do We Seek in Romantic Partners?......Page 267
 What Research Tells Us About… Two Factors That May Destroy Love—Jealousy and Infidelity......Page 268
  7.4.3: Relationships with Family Members: Our First—and Most Lasting—Close Relationships......Page 270
  7.4.4: Friendships: Relationships Beyond the Family......Page 272
 Summary and Review......Page 275
Chapter 8: Social Influence Changing Others’ Behavior......Page 276
 8.1: Conformity: How Groups—and Norms— Influence Our Behavior......Page 279
  8.1.1: Social Pressure: The Irresistible Force?......Page 280
 What Research Tells Us About… How Much We Really Conform......Page 282
  8.1.3: Factors Affecting Conformity......Page 283
  8.1.5: The Downside of Conformity......Page 286
  8.1.6: Reasons for Nonconformity: Why We Sometimes Choose “Not to Go Along”......Page 289
  8.1.7: Minority Influence: Does the Majority Always Rule?......Page 293
  8.2.1: The Underlying Principles of Compliance......Page 295
  8.2.2: Tactics Based on Friendship or Liking......Page 296
  8.2.3: Tactics Based on Commitment or Consistency......Page 297
  8.2.4: Tactics Based on Reciprocity......Page 298
  8.2.6: Do Compliance Tactics Work?......Page 299
 What Research Tells Us About… Using Scarcity to Gain Compliance......Page 300
  8.3.1: Obedience in the Laboratory......Page 301
  8.3.2: Why Destructive Obedience Occurs......Page 304
  8.3.3: Resisting the Effects of Destructive Obedience......Page 305
  8.4.1: Emotional Contagion......Page 306
  8.4.2: Symbolic Social Influence......Page 308
  8.4.3: Modeling: Learning from Observing Others......Page 309
 Summary and Review......Page 310
Chapter 9: Prosocial Behavior Helping Others......Page 312
  9.1.1: Empathy-Altruism: It Feels Good to Help Others......Page 314
  9.1.3: Empathic Joy: Feeling Good by Helping Others......Page 316
  9.1.4: Competitive Altruism: Why Nice People Sometimes Finish First......Page 317
  9.1.5: Kin Selection Theory......Page 318
  9.1.6: Defensive Helping: Helping Outgroups to Reduce Their Threat to Our Ingroup......Page 319
 9.2: Responding to an Emergency: Will Bystanders Help?......Page 320
  9.2.2: Is There Safety in Numbers? Sometimes, but Not Always......Page 321
  9.2.3: Key Steps in Deciding to Help—Or Not......Page 322
  9.3.1: Factors That Increase Prosocial Behavior......Page 326
  9.3.2: Factors That Reduce Helping......Page 329
 What Research Tells Us About… Paying It Forward: Helping Others Because We Have Been Helped......Page 330
 What Research Tells Us About… How People React to Being Helped......Page 333
 9.4: Crowdfunding: A New Type of Prosocial Behavior......Page 334
  9.4.1: Emotion and Prosocial Behavior: Mood, Feelings of Elevation, and Helping......Page 335
  9.4.2: Gender and Prosocial Behavior: Do Women and Men Differ?......Page 336
 9.5: Final Thoughts: Are Prosocial Behavior and Aggression Opposites?......Page 337
 Summary and Review......Page 339
Chapter 10: Aggression Its Nature, Causes, and Control......Page 340
  10.1.1: The Role of Biological Factors: Are We Programmed for Violence?......Page 343
  10.1.2: Drive Theories: The Motive to Harm Others......Page 345
  10.1.3: Modern Theories of Aggression......Page 346
  10.2.1: Basic Sources of Aggression: Frustration and Provocation......Page 348
 What Research Tells Us About… The Role of Emotions in Aggression......Page 350
  10.2.2: Social Causes of Aggression......Page 351
  10.2.3: Why Some People Are More Aggressive Than Others......Page 356
  10.2.4: Gender and Aggression: Are Men More Aggressive Than Women?......Page 358
  10.2.5: Situational Determinants of Aggression: The Effects of Heat, Alcohol, and Gun Availability......Page 359
  10.3.1: What Is Bullying?......Page 363
  10.3.3: Can Bullying Be Reduced?......Page 365
 What Research Tells Us About… Workplace Aggression......Page 367
  10.4.1: Punishment: Revenge or Deterrence?......Page 368
  10.4.2: Self-Regulation: Internal Mechanisms for Restraining Aggression......Page 370
  10.4.3: Catharsis: Does “Blowing Off Steam” Really Help?......Page 371
  10.4.4: Reducing Aggression by Thinking Nonaggressive Thoughts......Page 372
 Summary and Review......Page 373
Chapter 11: Groups and Individuals The Consequences of Belonging......Page 375
 11.1: Groups: When We Join . . . and When We Leave......Page 378
  11.1.1: Groups: Their Key Components......Page 380
  11.1.2: The Benefits—and Costs—of Joining......Page 385
 What Research Tells Us About… Dissent and Criticism of Our Groups—“Because We Care”......Page 389
  11.2.1: Social Facilitation: Performing in the Presence of Others......Page 391
  11.2.2: Social Loafing: Letting Others Do the Work......Page 394
  11.2.3: Effects of Being in a Crowd......Page 395
 11.3: Coordination in Groups: Cooperation or Conflict?......Page 397
  11.3.1: Cooperation: Working with Others to Achieve Shared Goals......Page 398
  11.3.2: Responding to and Resolving Conflicts......Page 400
  11.4.1: Rules for Judging Fairness: Distributive, Procedural, and Transactional Justice......Page 403
 What Research Tells Us About… The Importance of Being Treated with Respect......Page 404
  11.5.1: The Decision-Making Process: How Groups Attain Consensus......Page 406
  11.5.2: The Downside of Group Decision Making......Page 407
 11.6: The Role of Leadership in Group Settings......Page 410
 Summary and Review......Page 413
Chapter 12: Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life......Page 415
  12.1.1: The Impact of Social Relationships on Health......Page 417
  12.1.2: How Self-Views Affect Outcomes......Page 421
  12.1.3: The Struggle to “Belong”......Page 423
  12.2.1: Using Social Groups to Improve Health......Page 425
  12.2.2: Social Identification as a Means for Managing Stress......Page 426
  12.2.3: Accepting Ourselves......Page 427
 What Research Tells Us About… Reducing Post-Traumatic Stress Among Veterans......Page 428
  12.3.1: Social Influence in the Legal Process......Page 431
  12.3.2: The Influence of Prejudice and Stereotypes in the Legal System......Page 435
  12.4.1: How Happy Are People, in General?......Page 439
  12.4.3: Does Monetary Wealth Create Happiness?......Page 440
  12.4.5: Differences Between Happy and Unhappy People......Page 442
 What Research Tells Us About… The Relationship Between Emotions and Life Satisfaction Within Different Cultures......Page 444
  12.4.6: Benefits of Happiness......Page 445
  12.4.7: Is It Possible to Be Too Happy?......Page 446
  12.4.8: Increasing Happiness Levels......Page 447
  12.4.9: Entrepreneurship as a Means of Seeking Happiness......Page 449
 Summary and Review......Page 452
Glossary......Page 454
References......Page 461
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