Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood

Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 10
Preface......Page 14
Introduction......Page 16
Child Factors......Page 17
Household and Caregiver Factors......Page 18
Impact of Maltreatment......Page 19
Impact on Brain and Development......Page 20
Impact on Behavior......Page 22
Assessment......Page 23
Treatment......Page 24
Relevant Websites......Page 26
Introduction......Page 27
Overview of Foster Care......Page 28
Maltreatment......Page 29
The Caregiving System......Page 30
Adjustment Outcomes......Page 31
Interventions......Page 32
Introduction......Page 33
The Development of Anger......Page 34
Who Becomes a Physically Violent Adolescent?......Page 37
When Does Physical Aggression Start?......Page 38
From Physical Aggression to Other Forms of Aggression......Page 39
From Anger to Aggression......Page 40
Individual and Environmental Risk Factors......Page 41
Genetically Informative Studies......Page 42
Conclusion: Prevention of Anger and Aggression Problems......Page 43
Suggested Readings......Page 44
Introduction......Page 45
Secure-Base Behavior......Page 46
An Evolutionary Rationale......Page 47
Maintenance of proximity to a discriminated figure by means of locomotion as well as signals......Page 48
Individual Differences in Attachment Relationships......Page 49
Individual Differences in Attachment Security and Quality of Care......Page 50
The attachment Q-set......Page 51
Attachment in Early Childhood......Page 52
Interactions and Continuous Secure Base Support......Page 53
Representational Issues......Page 54
Relevant Websites......Page 55
Introduction......Page 56
Diagnosis and Early Recognition......Page 57
Early Brain Development in ASD......Page 58
Play......Page 59
Language......Page 60
Relevant Websites......Page 62
Social Development......Page 64
Intellectual Development......Page 65
Family Niche Theory......Page 66
Contrasting Mechanisms......Page 67
Social Development......Page 68
Stereotype Effects......Page 69
Summary......Page 70
Glossary......Page 71
The Benefits of Being Breastfed for the Human Infant......Page 72
Health Benefits of Being Breastfed......Page 73
Psychological Impact of Breastfeeding......Page 74
Guilt, Anger, Failure, and an Informed Decision......Page 75
Gross Anatomy......Page 76
The Role of Oxytocin......Page 78
The Composition of Human Milk......Page 79
The Initiation of Successful Breastfeeding......Page 80
Weaning......Page 81
Relevant Websites......Page 82
Introduction......Page 84
Types of Child Care......Page 85
Intellectual Development......Page 86
Behavior Problems......Page 87
Assessing Childcare Quality......Page 88
Physical Environments......Page 89
Group sizes and child-adult ratios......Page 90
Effects of Entering Childcare in Infancy......Page 91
Vulnerable Children......Page 92
The Family's Place......Page 93
Relevant Websites......Page 94
Distress Calls Among Mammals......Page 95
Sonograms......Page 96
Crying and Acoustics......Page 97
Anatomy and Physiology of Cry......Page 99
Neurological Basis of Cry......Page 100
Normal Development of Crying......Page 101
Severe Medical Problems Already Identified......Page 102
Medical Conditions Increasing Risk for Poor Development......Page 103
Goodness of Fit......Page 104
Suggested Readings......Page 105
Introduction......Page 106
Theory and Early Observations of Infant Depression......Page 107
Maternal Depression and Its Influence on Infants' Psychobiological Processes......Page 108
Empirical Studies of Preschool Depression......Page 109
Depression in Infants and Toddlers......Page 110
Treatment......Page 111
See also......Page 112
Introduction......Page 113
Historical Views of Discipline......Page 114
The Three Faces of Discipline......Page 115
Limitations of the Reasoning/Power Assertion Dichotomy......Page 116
There Is Inconsistent Evidence and Other Approaches Have Been Successful......Page 117
The Impact of Power Assertion and Reasoning Depends on the Context in Which They Are Administered......Page 118
There Are Variations in the Use and Effectiveness of Discipline Strategies......Page 119
The child's temperament......Page 120
Socialization is a Bidirectional Process......Page 121
Another Approach to Compliance......Page 122
Population in the United States......Page 123
Diminished Parenting during and after Divorce......Page 124
Special Vulnerability of Very Young Children......Page 125
Children's Responses During the Breakup......Page 126
Gender Differences......Page 127
Postdivorce Dilemmas......Page 128
Attachment Research......Page 129
Children's Adjustment in Overnights with Father......Page 130
Conclusions......Page 131
Suggested Readings......Page 132
What Is Emotion Regulation?......Page 134
Neurobiological Development and Early Emotion Regulation......Page 136
Temperamental Influences......Page 137
Understanding Emotion, Self, and Emotion Regulation......Page 138
Family Socialization of Emotion Regulation......Page 139
Peer and Sibling Influences......Page 142
Conclusion......Page 143
Empathy and Related Terms......Page 144
Development of Empathy......Page 145
Methods of Study......Page 147
Influences on Empathy......Page 148
Disorders of Empathy......Page 151
Suggested Readings......Page 152
Family Influences on Infant and Early Childhood Development......Page 154
Directions of Influence......Page 155
Families as Organized Systems within a Social Ecology......Page 156
Family Interaction and Child Development......Page 157
Family Communication and Child Adjustment......Page 158
Family Stress and Child Development......Page 159
Altering Family Behavior......Page 161
Suggested Readings......Page 162
Introduction......Page 163
Fear vs. Wariness......Page 164
Fears of the Human Infant......Page 165
The Amygdala......Page 166
Temperamental Biases......Page 167
Developmental Consequences of Infant Temperament......Page 168
Advice for Parents......Page 169
Glossary......Page 171
Introduction......Page 172
Learning to Interact: Infants and Toddlers......Page 173
Constructing Shared Meanings: Toddlers and Preschoolers......Page 174
Forming Social Structures within Peer Groups: I'll Be Your Friend If .........Page 175
Friendship as Affective Relationships......Page 177
The Process of Friendship Formation When the Children Cannot (Yet) Talk About Friendships......Page 178
Childcare Friendships as a Way to Learn How to Engage with Peers......Page 179
See also......Page 180
Suggested Readings......Page 181
Glossary......Page 182
Active Categorization......Page 183
Gender Constancy......Page 184
Multidimensionality of Identity......Page 185
Perry's model......Page 186
Sellers' model......Page 187
Structure of Gender Stereotypes......Page 188
Sex-Typed Behaviors......Page 189
Theoretical Perspectives......Page 190
Cognitive constructivist theories......Page 191
Biological Perspectives......Page 192
Suggested Readings......Page 193
The Beginnings of Head Start......Page 194
Intelligence and Early Intervention......Page 196
Parent Involvement......Page 197
Social Services......Page 198
1989-96: A.Critical Look at Head Start: Advisory Panels......Page 199
New Funding Initiative from Administration on Children, Youth and Families/Head Start Bureau......Page 200
The Role of the Head Start National Research Conferences......Page 202
Suggested Readings......Page 203
Introduction......Page 204
Ages Infant to 3 Years......Page 205
Ages 4-6 Years......Page 206
Ages 6-8 Years......Page 207
Psychodynamic Theory......Page 208
Constructivist Theory......Page 209
Cognitive Development......Page 210
Physical and Motor Development......Page 211
The Role of Parents and Other Caregivers......Page 212
Suggested Readings......Page 213
Humans as the Imitative Animal......Page 214
The Binding Problem......Page 215
Piaget's Theory of Imitative Development......Page 216
Imitation of Novel Acts from Memory......Page 217
Imitation and Social Communication......Page 219
Regulation of Imitation by Prior Experience and Success of the Model......Page 220
Mirror Neurons......Page 221
Robotics......Page 222
Glossary......Page 223
Conceptualizing and Measuring Independence and Dependence......Page 224
Other Psychoanalytic Theorists......Page 226
Social-Learning Theory......Page 227
Bowlby's Attachment Theory......Page 228
Dependency and Emotion Regulation......Page 229
Dependency and Crying......Page 230
See also......Page 231
Relevant Website......Page 232
Introduction......Page 234
Psychological Research on Correlates of Marital Quality......Page 235
Parent-Child Relationships and Early Emotional Development......Page 237
Marriage and Parent-Child Relationships......Page 238
Effects on Co-Parenting......Page 239
Direct Effects of Marital Conflict on Children......Page 240
Marriage in Ethnic Minority Groups......Page 241
Marriage and the Development of Ethnic Minority Children......Page 242
Suggested Readings......Page 243
Why Parents Work?......Page 244
The Child-Parent Attachment Relationship......Page 245
Independence and Autonomy......Page 246
Physical Health......Page 247
Social Competence and Peer Relations......Page 248
Behavior Problems......Page 249
Gender-Related Behaviors and Ideas......Page 250
Welfare-to-Work......Page 251
Paternal Employment......Page 252
Child Gender and Socioeconomic Status......Page 253
Summary......Page 254
Relevant Websites......Page 255
Definitions......Page 256
Contexts of Infant Mental Health......Page 257
Relationship Context......Page 258
Diagnostic Classification Systems......Page 259
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder......Page 260
Relationship disorders......Page 261
Assessment of Infants and Caregivers......Page 262
Systems Intervention......Page 264
Suggested Readings......Page 265
Introduction......Page 266
What Constitutes the 'Environment?'......Page 267
Are There Specific Genes Associated with Psychological Traits?......Page 269
Are There Specific Environments Associated with Psychological Traits?......Page 270
Gene-Environment Interplay......Page 271
Gene-Environment Interaction......Page 272
Epigenetic Influences......Page 273
Adoption Studies......Page 274
Microarray Studies......Page 275
Relevant Websites......Page 276
Glossary......Page 278
Schizophrenia......Page 279
Anxiety Disorders......Page 280
Mental Illness and Parenting: Dual Challenges......Page 281
Depression......Page 282
Bipolar Disorder and Schizophrenia......Page 283
Assessing Parenting Risk in Individuals with Chronic Mental Illness......Page 284
Effects on Children's Development and Well-Being......Page 285
Early childhood......Page 286
Long-term effects......Page 287
Conclusions......Page 288
Introduction......Page 289
Depression......Page 290
Maternal recovery......Page 291
Fathers' Parental Leave......Page 292
Mother-Infant Relationship......Page 293
Conclusion......Page 294
Glossary......Page 295
Parenting Styles......Page 296
The Authoritarian Parenting Style......Page 297
Measurement of Parenting Styles......Page 298
Infants......Page 299
Child Temperament......Page 300
Cultural Effects......Page 301
Socioeconomic Status and Maternal Employment......Page 303
Parental Depression......Page 304
Effects of Authoritative Parenting Style......Page 305
Effects of the Authoritarian Parenting Style......Page 306
Parents in the Same Family Who Differ in Parenting Style......Page 307
Glossary......Page 308
Types of Play......Page 309
Functions of Play......Page 310
The Developmental Progression of Play......Page 312
Play and Other Related Functions......Page 313
Play and Play Partners......Page 314
Gender Segregation of Play......Page 315
Play and Culture......Page 316
Glossary......Page 317
Introduction......Page 318
Depressed Mother-Infant Interactions......Page 320
Depressed Mothering and Infant-Mother Attachments......Page 322
Depressed Mother-Toddler Relationships......Page 323
The Role of Maternal Self-Efficacy......Page 324
Maternal Depression in Transactional Perspective......Page 325
Relevant Websites......Page 327
Introduction......Page 328
Early to Mid-Infancy......Page 329
Pointing......Page 330
Symbolic Gestures......Page 331
Early Word Learning and Use......Page 332
Multiword Speech......Page 333
Conversational Development......Page 335
Concluding Remarks......Page 336
Introduction......Page 337
Overview of Early Childhood Programs......Page 338
Features of Quality Early Childhood Programs for Children 0-3......Page 339
Early Head Start......Page 340
Educare Programs, Bounce Learning Network......Page 341
Home Visiting Programs......Page 342
Center-Based Programs for Children 0-3 in European Countries......Page 343
Findings from Research: Intervention Program Effects on Disadvantaged Infants and Toddlers......Page 345
Nurse Home Visiting......Page 346
Relevant Websites......Page 347
Introduction......Page 348
Defining Risk Factors......Page 349
Assessing Risk Factors......Page 351
Personal Characteristics......Page 352
Family Characteristics......Page 353
Theoretical Models of Risk and Resilience......Page 354
Main Effects Models......Page 355
Developmental Outcomes: Competence and Maladjustment......Page 356
Methods......Page 357
Glossary......Page 358
Early Feeding and Sleep Routines......Page 359
Child Routines During the Preschool Years......Page 360
Routines and Child Developmental Outcomes......Page 361
Cultural Variations in Children's Routines......Page 364
Suggested Readings......Page 365
Introduction......Page 368
Perceptually Based Self-Knowledge......Page 369
Bodily Awareness......Page 370
Self-Efficacy......Page 371
Self-Reflective Awareness......Page 373
Visual Self-Recognition......Page 375
Early Autobiographical Self-Knowledge......Page 377
Conclusion......Page 378
Glossary......Page 379
Introduction......Page 380
Inferences: Developmental Issues and Regulatory Processes......Page 381
The Brain: With Emphasis on the Prefrontal Cortex......Page 382
Inhibitory Control......Page 385
Age trends......Page 387
Executive Attention: Managing One's Attention......Page 388
Age trends......Page 389
Emotion Regulation......Page 391
Age trends......Page 392
Suggested Readings......Page 394
Stranger Anxiety......Page 395
Incongruity between the familiar and the unfamiliar face......Page 396
Fearfulness as a marker of a new level of emotional organization......Page 397
The role of cognitive and social factors......Page 398
Physiological and Behavioral Correlates of Emotional Distress......Page 399
Attachment as a window on separation anxiety......Page 400
The separation-individuation process......Page 401
Separation anxiety as a marker of emotional development......Page 402
Clinical and Etiological Consideration......Page 403
Introduction......Page 404
Wariness to Strangers......Page 405
Behavioral Inhibition......Page 406
Social Anxiety......Page 407
Development of Shyness: Infancy to Middle Childhood......Page 409
Long-Term Outcome of Early Shyness......Page 411
Introduction......Page 412
Shared and Nonshared Environments......Page 413
Birth of a Sibling and the Transition to Siblinghood......Page 414
Development of the Sibling Relationship over the First 2 Years......Page 415
Rivalry......Page 416
Conflict......Page 417
Play and Prosocial Behavior......Page 418
Sibling Caretaking and Attachment......Page 419
Sibling Teaching......Page 420
Conclusions......Page 421
Introduction......Page 422
Discrete Emotion Theory......Page 423
Neurophysiology of Smiling......Page 424
Smiling, Joyful Positive Emotion, and Arousal......Page 425
Strong smiles......Page 426
Neonatal smiling: 0-1 month of age......Page 427
Overview of infant and parental activities during .interactive smiling......Page 428
Developments in interactive smiling between 2 and 6 months of age......Page 429
Smiling between 6 and 12 Months of Age: The Development of Referential Smiling......Page 430
The development of referential communications involving smiles......Page 431
Smiling in peer play......Page 432
Smiling and Attachment......Page 433
Conclusion......Page 434
Glossary......Page 435
What Are Emotions?......Page 436
Discrete Emotions Theory......Page 437
Cognitive Approaches......Page 438
Social and Emotional Milestones......Page 439
Individual Differences: Temperament......Page 441
Multiple risks: The more risk, the greater the negative impact......Page 442
Suggested Readings......Page 443
Macro-Development......Page 444
Micro-Development: The Moment-by-Moment Process of Mutual Regulation......Page 445
The Normal Individual and Cultural Variation of Social interactions......Page 446
Matching, Mismatching, and Reparation......Page 447
Reparatory Failure and Pathology......Page 448
Suggested Readings......Page 451
Recent Advances in the Field of Child Assessment......Page 452
Caregiver Reporter Issues......Page 453
Assessing Children within the Caregiving Context......Page 454
Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and the Caregiving Context......Page 455
Caregiver Report: Rating Scales, Questionnaires, and Interviews......Page 456
Observational Techniques: Semistructured Diagnostic Tools and Parent-Child Interactions......Page 457
Evaluating Assessment Techniques......Page 458
Conclusion: Remaining Gaps and Future Directions......Page 459
Relevant Website......Page 460
Contemporary Perspectives on Socialization......Page 461
The Typological Approach......Page 463
The Attachment Theory Approach to Parent-Child Relationships......Page 464
Parents as Managers of Children's Socialization Opportunities......Page 465
The Marital or Partner-Partner Subsystem......Page 466
Child Characteristics......Page 467
Ethnicity......Page 468
Peers......Page 469
Schools......Page 470
Suggested Readings......Page 471
Introduction......Page 472
Conceptualizations and Definitions Regarding Physiological Responses to Stress......Page 473
Psychological Processes of Stress and Coping in Infancy and Childhood......Page 474
Common Themes in Stress and Coping Research in Infancy and Early Childhood......Page 476
Stress and Coping in Infancy through Early Childhood......Page 477
Caregivers Responses to Infant Stress......Page 478
Coping Responses in Early Childhood......Page 479
Links between Stress and Coping and the Well-Being of Infants and Young Children......Page 480
Historical overview of infant attachment research......Page 481
Coping with Exposure to Marital Conflict in Infancy and Early Childhood......Page 482
Theoretical model of children's coping responses to family stress: Emotional Security Theory......Page 483
Individual Differences in Infant Stress and Coping: Temperament......Page 484
Suggested Readings......Page 485
Introduction......Page 486
Setting the Agenda......Page 487
Correlational Panel Studies......Page 488
Early Experimental Studies......Page 489
Patterns of Use......Page 491
Effects of Viewing......Page 492
Glossary......Page 495
Conceptual Definitions of Temperament......Page 496
Dimensions of Temperament: Structural Definitions......Page 497
Confidence in Measures of Temperament: Reliability and Validity......Page 499
Infancy (4-12 Months)......Page 500
Gender Differences in Early Temperament......Page 501
From Temperament to Personality......Page 502
Psychopathology and Competence in Early Childhood......Page 503
Suggested Readings......Page 509
Introduction......Page 510
Understanding False Belief......Page 511
Beliefs and Desires: Truth and Fulfillment......Page 512
Social Perception in Infancy......Page 513
Mental-State Awareness in Toddlers and Young Preschoolers......Page 514
Metarepresentational Ability in Older Preschoolers......Page 516
Recursive and Interpretive Abilities in School-age Children......Page 517
Individual Differences......Page 518
Cultural Differences......Page 520
Explanations of Theory-of-Mind Development......Page 521
Suggested Readings......Page 522
Introduction......Page 523
Twin Behaviors......Page 524
Psychological Closeness......Page 525
School Behaviors......Page 526
Twin Language......Page 527
Genetic Influences on Environmental Influences......Page 528
Gene-Environment Correlation and Interaction......Page 529
Cognition......Page 530
Externalizing Behaviors......Page 531
Internalizing Behavior......Page 532
Suggested Readings......Page 533
Glossary......Page 534
A.Brief Biography of L..S. Vygotsky......Page 535
Vygotsky's Approach to Psychological Development......Page 536
Elementary and Higher Mental Functions......Page 537
Cognitive Mediation through Signs and Tools......Page 538
The Role of the Social Experience in Psychological Development......Page 540
Vygotsky's Developmental or Genetic Method......Page 541
Summary and Conclusions......Page 542
Relevant Website......Page 543
Color Plates......Page 544
Subject Index......Page 546