Sobotta Anatomy Textbook: With Latin Nomenclature

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Instructions to the user
Sobotta ANATOMY TEXTBOOK
Sobotta ANATOMY TEXTBOOK: English edition with Latin nomenclature
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of editors and authors1
Picture credits
Table of contents
I - GENERALANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY
	1 - General anatomy
		1.1 Subdivisions
		1.2
Architecture of the human body
			1.2.1
Organisation
			1.2.2
Body proportions
			1.2.3
Positional descriptions
			1.2.4
General anatomical descriptions
		1.3
Skin and skin appendages
			1.3.1
Skin types and skin layers
			1.3.2
Skin appendages
		1.4
Musculoskeletal system
			1.4.1
Cartilage
			1.4.2
Bones
			1.4.3
Joints
			1.4.4
General considerations on muscles
		1.5
Circulation systems
			1.5.1
Body and pulmonary circulation
			1.5.2
Portal vein circulation
			1.5.3
Prenatal circulation
			1.5.4
Lymphatic circulation
		1.6
Mucous membranes, glands, serous cavities
			1.6.1
Mucous membranes
			1.6.2
Glands
			1.6.3
Serous cavities
		1.7
Nervous system
	2 - General embryology
		2.1
Introduction
		2.2
Fertilisation
			2.2.1
Translocation and capacitation
			2.2.2
Acrosome reaction and fusion of the germ cells
			2.2.3
Fusion of genetic material
		2.3
Preimplantation development
			2.3.1
Cleavage and compaction
			2.3.2
Blastocysts and implantation
		2.4
Gastrulation
			2.4.1
Two-leaved germinal disc
			2.4.2
Creation of the germinal layers
		2.5
Development of the ectoderm
			2.5.1
Induction of the neuroectoderm
			2.5.2
Neurulation
			2.5.3
Neural crest
		2.6
Development of the mesoderm
			2.6.1
Axial mesoderm
			2.6.2
Paraxial mesoderm
			2.6.3
Intermediate mesoderm
			2.6.4
Lateral mesoderm
		2.7
Development of the entoderm
		2.8
Folding movements of the embryo
			2.8.1
Craniocaudal curvature
			2.8.2
Lateral folding up
		2.9
Extra-embryonic tissue
			2.9.1
Trophoblast
			2.9.2
Chorionic cavity and yolk sac
			2.9.3
Amnion
			2.9.4
Allantois
		2.10
Early development of the extremities
			2.10.1
Formation of the extremity buds
			2.10.2
Pattern formation in the extremities positions
			2.10.3
Origin of the skeleton and the muscles of the extremities
		2.11
Early development of the head and throat area
			2.11.1
Pharyngeal arches
			2.11.2
Pharyngeal grooves and pharyngeal pouches
			2.11.3
Development of the tongue and thyroid gland
			2.11.4
Facial development
			2.11.5
Development of the oral and nasal cavities
II - MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
	3 - Torso
		3.1
Ventral torso wall
			3.1.1
General structure
			3.1.2
Thoracic wall
			3.1.3
Diaphragm
			3.1.4
Abdominal wall
		3.2
Dorsal torso wall
			3.2.1
General structure
			3.2.2
Back muscles
			3.2.3
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems of the dorsal torso wall
		3.3
Spine, spinal cord and thorax
			3.3.1
Embryology
			3.3.2
Spine
			3.3.3
Spinal cord site
			3.3.4
Thorax
	4 - Upper extremity
		4.1
Overview
		4.2
Development of upper and lower extremities
			4.2.1
Course
			4.2.2
Bones
			4.2.3
Muscular system
			4.2.4
Nerves
			4.2.5
Blood vessels
		4.3
Shoulder girdle
			4.3.1
Bones of the shoulder girdle
			4.3.2
Joints and ligament connections of the ­shoulder girdle
			4.3.3
Shoulder girdle mechanics
			4.3.4
Shoulder girdle muscles
		4.4
Upper arm
			4.4.1
Humerus
			4.4.2
Shoulder joint
			4.4.3
Shoulder joint mechanics
			4.4.4
Shoulder muscles
		4.5
Forearm and hand
			4.5.1
Bones of the forearm
			4.5.2
Elbow joint
			4.5.3
Joint connections between the forearm bones
			4.5.4
Elbow joint and distal radioulnar joint ­mechanics
			4.5.5 Muscles
			4.5.6
Structure and bones of the hand
			4.5.7
Joints of the hand
			4.5.8
Hand-joint mechanics
			4.5.9
Muscles of the forearm and hand
			4.5.10
Auxiliary structures of the musculature in the area of the hand
		4.6
Nerves of the upper extremity
			4.6.1
Sensory innervation
			4.6.2 Structure of the Plexus brachialis
			4.6.3
N. axillaris
			4.6.4
N. radialis
			4.6.5
N. musculocutaneus
			4.6.6
N. medianus
			4.6.7
N. ulnaris
			4.6.8
N. cutanei brachii and antebrachii medialis
		4.7
Arteries of the upper extremity
			4.7.1
A. subclavia
			4.7.2
A. axillaris
			4.7.3
A. brachialis
			4.7.4
A. radialis
			4.7.5
A. ulnaris
		4.8
Veins of the upper extremity
			4.8.1
Superficial veins
			4.8.2
Deep veins
		4.9
Lymphatic vessels of the upper extremity
			4.9.1
Epifascial and subfascial lymph vessels
			4.9.2
Lymph nodes of the axilla
		4.10
Topographically important aspects of the arm
			4.10.1
Trigonum clavipectorale
			4.10.2
Axillary cavity
			4.10.3
Axillary spaces and triceps groove
			4.10.4
Elbow
			4.10.5
Carpal tunnel and guyon’s canal
	5 - Lower extremity
		5.1
Overview
		5.2
Pelvis
			5.2.1
Structure and form
			5.2.2
Bones of the pelvis
			5.2.3
Pelvic joints and ligament attachments
			5.2.4
Mechanics of the pelvic joints
		5.3
Thigh
			5.3.1
Thigh bone
			5.3.2
Hip joint
			5.3.3
Mechanics of the hip joint
			5.3.4
Muscles of the hip joint
			5.3.5
Fascia lata and Tractus iliotibialis
		5.4
Lower leg
			5.4.1
Bones of the leg
			5.4.2
Attachments between the Tibia and Fibula
			5.4.3
Knee joint
			5.4.4
Mechanics of the knee joint
			5.4.5
Muscles of the knee joint
		5.5
Foot
			5.5.1
Bones of the foot
			5.5.2
Joints of the foot
			5.5.3
Mechanics of the ankle joints
			5.5.4
The arch of the foot
			5.5.5
Muscles of the lower leg and foot
			5.5.6
Support facilities of the musculature in the region of the lower leg and foot
		5.6
Nerves of the lower extremity
			5.6.1
Plexus lumbosacralis
			5.6.2
N. ischiadicus
		5.7
Arteries of the lower extremity
			5.7.1
A. iliaca externa
			5.7.2
A. femoralis
			5.7.3
A. poplitea
			5.7.4
A. tibialis anterior
			5.7.5
A. tibialis posterior
		5.8
Veins of the lower extremity
		5.9
Lymph vessels of the lower extremity
			5.9.1
Lymph vessels
			5.9.2
Inguinal lymph nodes
			5.9.3
Pelvic lymph nodes
		5.10
Topographically important aspects of the leg
			5.10.1
Lacuna musculorum and Lacuna vasorum
			5.10.2
Femoral triangle and adductor canal
			5.10.3
Gluteal region
			5.10.4
Hollow of the knee
III - INTERNAL ORGANS
	6 - Chest viscera
		6.1
Heart
			6.1.1
Overview
			6.1.2
Function
			6.1.3
Development of the heart and blood vessels
			6.1.4
Prenatal and postnatal blood circulation
			6.1.5
Location and projection
			6.1.6
Atria and ventricles
			6.1.7
Heart wall and pericardium
			6.1.8
Cardiac skeleton and heart valves
			6.1.9
Conduction system and innervation of the heart
			6.1.10
Coronary blood vessel
			6.1.11
Veins and lymphatic vessels of the heart
		6.2
Trachea and lungs
			6.2.1
Overview and function
			6.2.2
Development of trachea and lungs
			6.2.3
Topography and structure of the trachea and main bronchi
			6.2.4
Vessels and nerves of the trachea and main bronchi
			6.2.5
Projection of the lungs
			6.2.6
Structure of the lungs
			6.2.7
Vessels and nerves of the lungs
		6.3
Oesophagus
			6.3.1
Overview, function and development
			6.3.2
Structure and projection
			6.3.3
Classification
			6.3.4
Constrictions of the oesophagus
			6.3.5
Closing mechanisms
			6.3.6
Vessels and nerves of the oesophagus
		6.4
Thymus
			6.4.1
Overview, function and development
			6.4.2
Structure
			6.4.3
Vessels and nerves of the thymus
		6.5
Thoracic cavity
			6.5.1
Overview
			6.5.2
Mediastinum
			6.5.3
Pleural cavities
			6.5.4
Breathing
			6.5.5
Development of the visceral cavities
		6.6
Vessels and nerves of the thoracic cavity
			6.6.1
Overview
			6.6.2
Arteries of the thoracic cavity
			6.6.3
Veins of the thoracic cavity
			6.6.4
Lymph vessels of the thoracic cavity
			6.6.5
Nerves of the thoracic cavity
	7 - Abdominal viscera
		7.1
Stomach
			7.1.1
Overview
			7.1.2
Functions of the stomach
			7.1.3
Development of stomach, Bursa omentalis, Omentum minus and Omentum majus
			7.1.4
Projection of the stomach
			7.1.5
Structure and sections of the stomach
			7.1.6
Surface enlargement of the stomach lining
			7.1.7
Topography
			7.1.8
Arteries of the stomach
			7.1.9
Veins of the stomach
			7.1.10
Lymph vessels of the stomach
			7.1.11
Innervation of the stomach
		7.2
Intestines
			7.2.1
Overview
			7.2.2
Functions of the intestine
			7.2.3
Development
			7.2.4
Structure and projection of the small ­intestine
			7.2.5
Structure and projection of the large intestine
			7.2.6
Structural features of the small and large ­intestines
			7.2.7
Topography of small and large intestines
			7.2.8
Intestinal arteries
			7.2.9
Veins of the intestine
			7.2.10
Lymph vessels of the intestine
			7.2.11
Innervation of the intestine
		7.3
Liver
			7.3.1
Overview
			7.3.2
Functions of the liver
			7.3.3
Development of the liver and gall bladder
			7.3.4
Projection of the liver
			7.3.5
Structure
			7.3.6
Parts and segments of the liver
			7.3.7
Fine structure of the liver
			7.3.8
Topography
			7.3.9
Arteries of the liver
			7.3.10
Veins of the liver
			7.3.11
Portocaval anastomoses
			7.3.12
Lymph vessels of the liver
			7.3.13
Innervation of the liver
		7.4
Gall bladder and bile ducts
			7.4.1
Overview and function
			7.4.2
Projection and topography of the gall bladder
			7.4.3
Construction of gall bladder and 
extrahepatic bile ducts
			7.4.4
Pathways of the gall bladder and bile ducts
			7.4.5
CALOT’s triangle
		7.5
Pancreas
			7.5.1
Overview
			7.5.2
Functions of the pancreas
			7.5.3
Development
			7.5.4
Projection and structure of the pancreas
			7.5.5
Excretory duct system of the pancreas
			7.5.6
Topography
			7.5.7
Vessels and nerves of the pancreas
		7.6
Spleen
			7.6.1
Overview
			7.6.2
Functions of the spleen
			7.6.3
Development
			7.6.4
Projection, construction and topography of the spleen
			7.6.5
Vessels and nerves of the spleen
		7.7
Peritoneal cavity
			7.7.1
Overview
			7.7.2
Omentum majus and Omentum minus
			7.7.3
Recessus of the peritoneal cavity
		7.8
Vessels and nerves of the peritoneal cavity
			7.8.1
Overview
			7.8.2
Arteries of the peritoneal cavity
			7.8.3
Veins of the peritoneal cavity
			7.8.4
Lymph vessels of the peritoneal cavity
			7.8.5
Nerves of the peritoneal cavity
	8 - Pelvic viscera
		8.1 - Kidneys
			8.1.1
Overview
			8.1.2
Functions of the kidneys
			8.1.3
Development of the kidneys
			8.1.4
Projection and structure of the kidney
			8.1.5
Fascial system of the kidney
			8.1.6
Topography
			8.1.7
Vessels and nerves of the kidney
		8.2
Adrenal gland
			8.2.1
Overview
			8.2.2
Functions of the adrenal gland and development
			8.2.3
Structure, projection and topography of the adrenal glands
			8.2.4
Vessels and nerves of the adrenal glands
		8.3
Efferent urinary tracts
			8.3.1
Overview and function
			8.3.2
Development of the efferent urinary tracts
			8.3.3
Renal pelvis and ureter
			8.3.4
Urinary bladder
			8.3.5
Urethra
			8.3.6
Closure mechanisms of the urinary bladder and the urethra
			8.3.7
Vessels and nerves of the efferent urinary tracts
		8.4
Rectum and anal canal
			8.4.1
Overview and function
			8.4.2
Classification, projection and structure of rectum and anal canal
			8.4.3
Mesorectum
			8.4.4
Continence organ
			8.4.5
Arteries of the rectum and anal canal
			8.4.6
Veins of the rectum and anal canal
			8.4.7
Lymphatic vessels of the rectum and anal ­canal
			8.4.8
Innervation of the rectum and anal canal
		8.5
Male genitalia
			8.5.1
Overview
			8.5.2
Function of the male genitalia
			8.5.3
Development of the male genitalia
			8.5.4
Penis and scrotum
			8.5.5
Testis and epididymis
			8.5.6
Vas deferens and spermatic cord
			8.5.7
Accessory sex glands
			8.5.8
Vessels and nerves of the external and ­internal male genitalia
		8.6
Female genitalia
			8.6.1
Overview
			8.6.2
Function of the female genitalia
			8.6.3
Development of the external and internal ­female genitalia
			8.6.4
Vulva
			8.6.5
Ovary and fallopian tubes
			8.6.6
Uterus
			8.6.7
Vagina
			8.6.8
Vessels and nerves of the external and ­internal female genitalia
		8.7
Retroperitoneal space and pelvic cavity
			8.7.1
Overview
			8.7.2
Retroperitoneal space
			8.7.3
Subperitoneal space
		8.8
Vessels and nerves of the extraperitoneal space and pelvic cavity
			8.8.1
Overview
			8.8.2
Arteries of the retroperitoneum and pelvic cavity
			8.8.3
Veins of the retroperitoneum and pelvic cavity
			8.8.4
Lymphatic vessels of the retroperitoneum and pelvic cavity
			8.8.5
Nerves of the retroperitoneum and pelvic cavity
		8.9
Pelvic floor and perineal region
			8.9.1
Overview
			8.9.2
Pelvic floor
			8.9.3
Perineal region
IV - HEAD AND NECK
	9 - Head
		9.1
Skull
		9.2
Soft tissue covering
			9.2.1
Overview
			9.2.2
Scalp
			9.2.3
Face and facial soft tissue
			9.2.4
Superficial lateral facial region
			9.2.5
Deep lateral facial region
		9.3
Cranial nerves
			9.3.1
N. olfactorius [I]
			9.3.2
N. opticus [II]
			9.3.3
N. oculomotorius [III]
			9.3.4
N. trochlearis [IV]
			9.3.5
N. trigeminus [V]
			9.3.6
N. abducens [VI]
			9.3.7
N. facialis [VII]
			9.3.8
N. vestibulocochlearis [VIII]
			9.3.9 N. glossopharyngeus [IX]
			9.3.10
N. vagus [X]
			9.3.11
N. accessorius [XI]
			9.3.12
N. hypoglossus [XII]
		9.4
Eye
			9.4.1
Embryology
			9.4.2
Protective and auxiliary structures of the eye
			9.4.3
Orbita
			9.4.4
Bulbus oculi
		9.5
Ear
			9.5.1
Embryology
			9.5.2 External ear
			9.5.3
Middle ear
			9.5.4
Internal ear
		9.6
Nose
			9.6.1
Overview
			9.6.2
Development
			9.6.3
External nose
			9.6.4
Nasal cavities
			9.6.5
Paranasal sinuses
			9.6.6
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems
		9.7
Oral cavity, masticatory apparatus, tongue, palate, floor of the mouth, salivary glands
			9.7.1
Oral cavity
			9.7.2
Masticatory apparatus – teeth
			9.7.3
Masticatory apparatus – 
Masticatory muscles
			9.7.4
Masticatory apparatus – temporomandibular joint
			9.7.5
Tongue
			9.7.6
Palate
			9.7.7
Floor of the mouth
			9.7.8
Lymphatic pathways of the oral cavity
			9.7.9
Salivary glands
	10 - Neck
		10.1
Overview
			10.1.1
Surface anatomy of the neck
			10.1.2
Regions of the neck and neck triangles
		10.2
Musculoskeletal system of the neck
			10.2.1
Passive sections
			10.2.2
Active sections – neck muscles
		10.3
Cervical fascia and connective tissue spaces
			10.3.1
Neck fasciae
			10.3.2
Connective tissue spaces of the neck
		10.4
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems of the neck
			10.4.1
Arteries of the neck
			10.4.2
Veins of the neck
			10.4.3
Nerves of the neck
			10.4.4
Lymph nodes of the neck
		10.5
Thyroid and parathyroid glands
			10.5.1
Location and function
			10.5.2
Development
			10.5.3
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems
		10.6
Larynx
			10.6.1
Overview
			10.6.2
Development
			10.6.3
Laryngeal skeleton
			10.6.4
Laryngeal levels
			10.6.5
Structure of the Plicae vocales und Plicae vestibulares
			10.6.6
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems
		10.7
Pharynx
			10.7.1
Development
			10.7.2
Levels of the pharynx
			10.7.3
Pharyngeal wall
			10.7.4
Pharyngeal musculature
			10.7.5
Vascular, lymphatic and nervous systems
			10.7.6
Swallowing
			10.7.7
Lymphatic pharyngeal ring
V - NEUROANATOMY
	11 - General neuroanatomy
		11.1
Embryology
			11.1.1
Overview
			11.1.2
Further brain development
			11.1.3
Development of the spinal cord
			11.1.4
Development of the peripheral nervous ­system
		11.2
Structure of the nervous system
			11.2.1
Overview
			11.2.2
Structure of the CNS
			11.2.3
Morphology of the CNS
			11.2.4
Distribution of grey matter in the CNS
			11.2.5
Distribution of white matter in the CNS
		11.3
Meninges
			11.3.1
Overview
			11.3.2
Embryology
			11.3.3
Pachymeninx – Dura mater
			11.3.4
Leptomeninx
			11.3.5
Neurovascular pathways of the meninges
		11.4 Ventricular system and adjacent structures
			11.4.1
Overview and structure
			11.4.2
Embryology
			11.4.3
Inner cerebrospinal fluid space
			11.4.4
External subarachnoid fluid spaces – ­Spatium subarachnoideum
			11.4.5
Cerebrospinal fluid
			11.4.6
Circumventricular organs
		11.5
Cerebral vessels
			11.5.1
Overview
			11.5.2
A. carotis interna and its branches
			11.5.3
Aa. vertebrales/A. basilaris and their branches
			11.5.4
Central blood supply
			11.5.5
Vascular supply of the spinal cord
			11.5.6
Topography and supply areas of the arteries
			11.5.7
Clinical description of the vascular sections
			11.5.8
Venous sinuses of the brain
			11.5.9
Presentation of the vasculature
	12 - Special neuroanatomy
		12.1
Telencephalon
			12.1.1
Overview
			12.1.2
Embryology
			12.1.3
Classification of the telencephalon
			12.1.4
Fibre systems of the telencephalon
			12.1.5
Neocortex
			12.1.6
Archicortex
			12.1.7
Paleocortex
			12.1.8
Subcortical nuclei
		12.2
Diencephalon
			12.2.1
Overview
			12.2.2
Epithalamus
			12.2.3
Thalamus
			12.2.4
Hypothalamus
			12.2.5
Subthalamus
		12.3
Brainstem
			12.3.1
Mesencephalon
			12.3.2
Pons and Medulla oblongata
			12.3.3
Functional systems of the brainstem
			12.3.4
Blood supply to the brainstem
		12.4
Cerebellum
			12.4.1
Overview
			12.4.2
Embryology
			12.4.3
Position and external appearance
			12.4.4
Internal structure
			12.4.5
Neurovascular pathways
			12.4.6
Blood supply
		12.5
Cranial nerves
			12.5.1
Overview
			12.5.2
Embryology
			12.5.3
Arterial blood supply
			12.5.4
N. olfactorius (1st cranial nerve, N. I)
			12.5.5
N. opticus (2nd cranial nerve, N. II)
			12.5.6
N. oculomotorius (3rd cranial nerve, N. III)
			12.5.7
N. trochlearis (4th cranial nerve, N. IV)
			12.5.8
N. trigeminus (5th cranial nerve, N. V)
			12.5.9
N. abducens (6th cranial nerve, N. VI)
			12.5.10
N. facialis (7th cranial nerve, N. VII)
			12.5.11
N. vestibulocochlearis 
(8th cranial nerve, N. VIII)
			12.5.12
N. glossopharyngeus 
(9th cranial nerve, N. IX)
			12.5.13
N. vagus (10th cranial nerve, N. X)
			12.5.14
N. accessorius (11th cranial nerve, N. XI)
			12.5.15
N. hypoglossus (12th cranial nerve, N. XII)
		12.6
Spinal cord
			12.6.1
Overview
			12.6.2
Segmental structure of the Medulla spinalis
			12.6.3
Surface and cross-sectional anatomy
			12.6.4
Structure of the Substantia grisea
			12.6.5
Structure of the Substantia alba
			12.6.6
Blood supply
			12.6.7
Motor functions of the spinal cord
	13 - Functional systems
		13.1
Somatic nervous system
			13.1.1
Overview
			13.1.2
Central section
			13.1.3
Peripheral section
			13.1.4
Execution of voluntary movements
		13.2
Somatosensory system
			13.2.1
Overview
			13.2.2
Peripheral section
			13.2.3
Central section
		13.3
Visual system
			13.3.1
Optic tract
			13.3.2
Visual reflexes
			13.3.3
Management of ocular motor function
		13.4
Auditory system
			13.4.1
Overview
			13.4.2
Peripheral section
			13.4.3
Central section
		13.5
Vestibular system
			13.5.1
Overview
			13.5.2
Peripheral section
			13.5.3
Central section
		13.6
Olfactory system
			13.6.1
Regio olfactoria
			13.6.2
Pathway of the olfactory tract
			13.6.3
Olfactory cortex
		13.7
Gustatory system
			13.7.1
Peripheral section
			13.7.2
Central section
		13.8
Nociceptive system
			13.8.1
Overview
			13.8.2
Pain conduction
			13.8.3
Pain processing
		13.9
Autonomic nervous system
			13.9.1
Overview
			13.9.2
Visceromotor function
			13.9.3
Viscerosensory function
			13.9.4
Autonomic reflex arcs and control circuits
			13.9.5
Central regulation of the autonomic nervous system
			13.9.6
Summary and outlook
		13.10 Limbic system
			13.10.1
Overview
			13.10.2
Components of the limbic system
			13.10.3
Neuronal circuits of the limbic system
Further reading
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z