Smart Ports and Robotic Systems: Navigating the Waves of Techno-Regulation and Governance

Acknowledgments
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Introduction to Smart Ports and Robotic Systems: Navigating the Waves of Techno-Regulation and Governance
	Bibliography
Part I Setting the Scene
2 The Possibilities of Ocean Innovation Diplomacy to Promote Transnational Innovation Ecosystems for the Maritime Sector
	1 Innovation Diplomacy
	2 Innovation Diplomacy in the Maritime Sector
	3 Intergovernmental Frameworks
	4 Multistakeholder Mechanisms
	5 Other Arrangements Boosting Ocean Innovation Diplomacy
	6 Recommendations
		6.1 Map and Assess Internal Market and Innovation Ecosystems (Identify Strengths, Weaknesses, Set Priorities)
		6.2 Defend Interests Multilaterally and Act Bi-trilaterally
		6.3 Public–Private Partnerships and Multistakeholder Engagement
		6.4 To Explore New Possibilities and Learn from Experience
	7 Conclusions
	Bibliography
Part II Vessel Autonomy & Autonomous Systems Redux
3 “Utopia at Sea” from the Captain’s Chair: Are Autonomous Ships the Real Solution to Human Error?
	1 Introduction
	2 Using Our Heads: New Technology Can Bring Safer Operations
	3 The Human Error Factor
		3.1 The Flaws in Human Intelligence
		3.2 The Human Label
	4 Enter Artificial Intelligence
		4.1 What Is Artificial Intelligence?
		4.2 What Is Machine Learning?
		4.3 What Artificial Intelligence Is Not?
	5 How Will Artificial Intelligence Change Our World Within Twenty Years?
	6 A Technological Utopia: The Next Industrial Revolution
		6.1 The Next Industrial Revolution
		6.2 Masters of Our Fate
	7 The Move Toward Autonomous Ships Has Begun, but Are We Prepared?
	8 History from Forty-Some-Odd Years Ago
		8.1 Dynamic Positioning: Shipping’s First Step Toward Autonomy
		8.2 An Overestimation?
	9 AI: Friend or Foe?
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Challenges Ahead
	10 Why Airplanes Might Soon Have Just One Pilot—Adapted from the Article “Moving Towards One Pilot” (Prisco, 2022)
		10.1 Aviation Is Just Blame Culture
		10.2 A Captain’s Responsibility
		10.3 No Such Thing as an Accident
		10.4 The Chain of Consequences
		10.5 Bridging the Gap
	11 The Secret to Success
		11.1 Connectivity—The Most Important Link
		11.2 Eyes Wide Open
		11.3 The Concerns of “Modern” Technology
		11.4 The Uproar over 5G
	12 United We Stand, Divided We Fall: Hardware, Software, and Liveware
		12.1 AI v HI
		12.2 Bridge Resource Management: A True Model for Mitigating Human Error
		12.3 Some Errors Are Fatal
		12.4 A Final Human Thought
	13 Conclusions
	References
4 Changing Ocean Observation and Cargo Carrying with Disruptively Affordable, Long Duration Autonomous Vessels—Case Study: SubSeaSail LLC
	1 Introduction
	2 Wind-Powered Autonomous Surface Vessels (WASV)
	3 SubSeaSailR LLC
	4 Semi-Submersible HORUS Vessels
	5 Multihull HERMES Cargo Vessels
	6 Conclusion
	References
5 Crowdsourced Bathymetry and Automation: An Evolutionary Process to Improve the Means of Navigation
	1 Introduction and Scope of Chapter
	2 Perspectives on Bathymetry
		2.1 Questions on the Homo Sapiens’ Evolutionary Processes
		2.2 Bathymetry
		2.3 Hydrographic Information
		2.4 Recognition by the UN Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM)
	3 SoN Information Evolves from a Unilateral to a Cooperative Multilateral Model
		3.1 Precursors to Cooperative Bathymetry
		3.2 Cooperative Hydrography
		3.3 Cooperative Multidisciplinary Efforts
	4 Framing CSB Within the Law of the Sea
		4.1 Defining Key Concept
			4.1.1 Definition of CSB
			4.1.2 SNI Is Not Defined in UNCLOS, SOLAS, or IHO Documents
			4.1.3 The IHO Defines an MBES As:
			4.1.4 RMO Is Likewise Not Defined in UNCLOS, SOLAS, or Other Conventions
			4.1.5 Automation Will Enable CSB
			4.1.6 Opportunistic Platforms for CSB
		4.2 Distinguishing CSB from Hydrographic Surveying and Marine Scientific Research
			4.2.1 CSB Should Not Be Conflated with Hydrographic Surveying, Despite the Fact That Both Seek to Measure Water Depth
			4.2.2 CSB Should Not Be Conflated with MSR
		4.3 The IHO Actively Supports CSB
	5 CSB Balances Interest Tensions
	6 Concluding Thoughts and Recommendations
	References
6 The Use of Marine Autonomous Systems in Ocean Observation Under the LOSC: Maintaining Access to and Sharing Benefits for Coastal States
	1 Introduction
	2 Operational Aspects of MAS Employed in Ocean Observation
		2.1 Marine Autonomous Surface Ship (MASS)
		2.2 Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUV)
		2.3 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)
		2.4 Profiling Floats (PF)
		2.5 Seabed Observatory (SO)
		2.6 Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA)
	3 Legal Aspects of Using MAS in Ocean Observation
		3.1 The Consent Regime
		3.2 International Cooperation
	4 Using MAS and Maintaining the Balance Envisioned by the Framework on MSR
		4.1 Evolutionary Interpretation of Part XIII
			4.1.1 When Coastal State Consent Is Needed
			4.1.2 When the Consent Can Be Withhold
			4.1.3 How to Comply with the Benefit Sharing Obligations
		4.2 Informal Law-Making Instruments
			4.2.1 International Organisations
			4.2.2 Private Sector
		4.3 Case Studies
			4.3.1 Argo OceanOPS and ARGO Floats
			4.3.2 Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme (CMEP) Containerised Autonomous Marine Environmental Laboratory (CAMEL)
	5 Conclusion
	References
Part III Smart Ports
7 Implications of Technological Innovation and Respective Regulations to Strengthen Port and Maritime Security: An International Agenda to Reduce Illegal Drug Traffic and Countering Terrorism at Sea
	1 Introduction
	2 Port and Maritime Security and Illegal Drug Traffic by Sea
	3 AUV Systems
	4 General Discussion
	5 Conclusions
	Bibliography
8 Automated Port Operations: The Future of Port Governance
	1 Introduction
	2 Why Automate?
	3 Human Factors
	4 Port Governance and Automation Changes
		4.1 Investment Costs
		4.2 Government Policy
		4.3 Labor Relations
		4.4 Cybersecurity
	5 The Way Ahead
		5.1 Investment Decisions
		5.2 Government Role
		5.3 Port Labor Governance
		5.4 Cybersecurity
	6 Conclusions
	Bibliography
9 Canada’s Rapidly Evolving Smart Ports
	1 Introduction
	2 Regulatory Framework
		2.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
		2.2 IMO Single Window (SW)
		2.3 Canada in Context
	3 Canadian Regulatory Framework
	4 Smart Port Drivers
	5 Intelligent Versus Smart Ports
	6 Technological Evolution of Canadian Port Authorities
		6.1 Port of Vancouver
		6.2 Port of Montreal
		6.3 Port of Halifax
	7 Conclusions: What Lies Ahead for Smart Ports?
	Bibliography
10 Concession-Based Project Finance for Smart Ports with a Special Focus on Emerging Economies
	1 Introduction
	2 Forms of Private Financing in Infrastructure
		2.1 Purchase of Public Utility Enterprises
		2.2 Provision of Public Services Without Development of Infrastructure
		2.3 Construction and Operation of Public Infrastructure
	3 The Smart Port Template
	4 Awarding the Concession for Smart Port Development
	5 Subject Matter of the Concession
	6 Building the Smart Port Implementation Objectives into the Concession
	7 Conclusions
	References
11 Smart Port State Enforcement Through UAVs: New Horizons for the Prevention of Ship Source Marine Pollution
	1 Introduction
	2 Public Perception of Ship Source Pollution
	3 Port State Enforcement of Ship Source Pollution Standards
	4 New Technological Horizons for Port State Enforcement
		4.1 Legal Status of UAVs and Marine Data Collection
		4.2 Nowhere to Hide: Emerging Surveillance Concerns
	5 Conclusion
	References
12 Digitalization and Cyber Physical Security Aspects in Maritime Transportation and Port Infrastructure
	1 Introduction
	2 Digitalization in the Maritime Industry
	3 Cyber Physical Security in Maritime Transportation and Port Infrastructure and Operations
	4 Cyber Security Threats and Vulnerabilities in Maritime Transportation and Port Infrastructure Operations
	5 Industry and Government Policies, Standards, Directives, and Guidelines
		5.1 Maritime Industry Organizations
		5.2 Industry Standardization Organizations
		5.3 Government and State Agencies
	6 Cyber Physical Security Assessment for Maritime Transportation and Port Infrastructure and Operations
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Cyber Physical Security Assessment Case Study: BTA Method
	7 Discussion
	8 Conclusions
	References
13 Port Cybersecurity: Balancing Evolving Regulatory Compliance with Enterprise Risk Management
	1 Cybersecurity Threat and Risk Landscape
	2 Legislative and Regulatory Framework
		2.1 International Maritime Organization
		2.2 United States
		2.3 European Union
		2.4 Singapore
		2.5 Interim Conclusion
	3 Government and Industry Guidance
		3.1 International Association of Ports and Harbors
			3.1.1 IAPH Guidelines
			3.1.2 IAPH White Paper
		3.2 European Union
		3.3 Organization of American States
		3.4 United Kingdom
	4 Insurance
	5 Conclusion
		5.1 Regulation and Guidance: Useful but Insufficient
		5.2 The Future: The Marriage of Legislation and Insurance
	Bibliography
14 Opportunities and Challenges in Relation to Big Data Analytics for the Shipping and Port Industries
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
		2.1 Big Data Concept
		2.2 Big Data Analytics
		2.3 Big Data in the Shipping and Port Industries
	3 Methodology Framework
	4 Analysis
	5 Conclusions
	Bibliography
Part IV Remote Inspection Techniques
15 Remote Inspections Scheme on Tanker Vessels During Covid-19 Pandemic
	1 Preliminaries
	2 PSC and Remote Surveys by Classification Societies
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Remote Classification Surveys
	3 Remote Assessment and Inspections During Covid-19
		3.1 Actions by Shipping Companies and Vessel Operators
		3.2 Actions by INTERTANKO
	4 Remote Assessment and Inspections Post-Covid-19
	5 The Future of Remote Inspections and Risk Assurance
	6 Conclusions
	Bibliography
16 Techno-Regulatory Challenges for Remote Inspection Techniques (RIT): The Role of Classification Societies
	1 Introduction
	2 In View of the Covid-19 Pandemic
	3 Regulatory Challenges
	4 Technological Challenges
	5 The Role of Classification Societies
	6 Case Study—Development of RIT Drone for Vessel Inspection
	7 Conclusion
	Bibliography
17 Remote Inspection Schemes: Past, Present, and Future
	1 Introduction
	2 Inspection and Certification
		2.1 Certification of Safety and Seaworthiness of Vessels (1a)
		2.2 Condition Assessment Programs (1b)
		2.3 Certification of Approved Service Suppliers (2)
	3 Challenges: Actual Technology
		3.1 Current Available RIT
		3.2 Challenges for Drones Operating Indoor and Outdoor
			3.2.1 Regulations
			3.2.2 Technology
			3.2.3 Challenges: Crawlers
			3.2.4 Challenges: ROV
			3.2.5 Challenges: 3D Modeling
			3.2.6 Challenges: Image Recognition
			3.2.7 Challenges: Data Storage
			3.2.8 Challenges: Reporting Tools
			3.2.9 General Market Challenges
	4 Vision: Future Technology and Business Models
		4.1 Regulations
		4.2 Technology
		4.3 Business Models
	5 Conclusions
	Bibliography
18 Human-Autonomy Teaming in Ship Inspection: Psychological Perspectives on the Collaboration Between Humans and Self-Governing Systems
	1 Introduction: Human-Autonomy Teaming in Maritime Contexts
	2 Psychological Perspectives on Human-Autonomy Teaming in Ship Inspections
		2.1 Level of Autonomy
		2.2 System Trust
		2.3 System Knowledge and Features
	3 Envisioning the Next Generation of Maritime Human-Autonomy Teaming
	4 Conclusion
	Bibliography
19 Lessons Learned from Maritime Nations Leading Autonomous Operations and Remote Inspection Techniques
	1 Introduction
	2 National Comparative Study
		2.1 The Case of the US
		2.2 The Case of the Netherlands
		2.3 The Case of Canada
		2.4 The Case of Norway
		2.5 The Case of China
		2.6 The Case of Singapore
	3 Conclusions
	References
20 Towards an International Guideline for RIT End-Users: Spearing Through Vessel Inspection and Hull Cleaning Techno-Regulatory Elements
	1 Introduction: Setting the Scene
	2 Main Elements of a Regulatory Blueprint
		2.1 Element 1: Compelling Evidence Redux
		2.2 Element 2: Uniform Definitions
		2.3 Element 3: Remote Survey vs RIT
		2.4 Element 4: Operational and Technical Considerations Based on Variety
		2.5 Element 5: Degree of Autonomy
		2.6 Element 6: Data Governance and Cyber Security
		2.7 Element 7: Liability and Safety
		2.8 Element 8: Determine “Proof of Concept”
		2.9 Element 9: Risk Assessment Framework for Determining the Feasibility of Remote Survey
		2.10 Element 10: Allocation of Responsibilities
	3 Conclusions
	References
Part V Tying the Threads
21 Smart Ports and Robotic Systems: Where Is It All Going from Here?
	1 Introduction
	2 Smart Ports
		2.1 Challenges for Smart Ports
		2.2 Port Authorities and Partners
	3 Robotic Systems
		3.1 Remote Inspections
		3.2 Enforcement Role
			3.2.1 Cargo Management
			3.2.2 Modal Management
	4 Security and Interoperability for Smart Ports and Robotic Systems
	5 Conclusions
	References