Silicon Solid State Devices and Radiation Detection

Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 6
1. Interactions of Charged Particles and Photons......Page 14
1.1 Passage of Massive Charged Particles Through Matter......Page 15
1.1.1 Collision-Loss Processes of Massive Charged Particles......Page 16
1.1.1.1 Maximum Transferable Energy to Atomic Electrons......Page 18
1.1.1.2 Bragg Curve and Peak......Page 19
1.1.1.3 Energy-Loss Minimum, Density Effect and Relativistic Rise......Page 21
1.1.1.4 Restricted Energy-Loss and Fermi Plateau......Page 24
1.1.1.5 Energy-Loss Fluctuations and the Most Probable Energy-Loss......Page 26
1.1.1.6 Improved Energy-Loss Distribution and Effective Most Probable Energy-Loss......Page 31
1.1.1.7 Nuclear Energy-Loss of Massive Particles......Page 35
1.2 Collision and Radiation Energy-Losses of Electrons and Positrons......Page 40
1.2.1 Collision Losses and the Most Probable Energy-Loss......Page 41
1.2.2 Radiation Energy-Losses......Page 43
1.3 Nuclear and Non-Ionizing Energy Losses of Electrons......Page 45
1.3.1 Scattering Cross Section of Electrons on Nuclei......Page 48
1.3.1.2 Screened Coulomb Potentials......Page 51
1.3.1.3 Finite Nuclear Size......Page 54
1.3.1.4 Finite Rest Mass of Target Nucleus......Page 56
1.3.2 Nuclear Stopping Power of Electrons......Page 60
1.3.3 Non-Ionizing Energy-Loss of Electrons......Page 61
1.4 Interactions of Photons with Matter......Page 65
1.4.1 Photoelectric Effect......Page 66
1.4.2 Compton Effect......Page 67
1.4.3 Pair Production......Page 70
1.4.3.1 Pair Production in Nuclear and Atomic Electron Fields......Page 71
1.4.4 Absorption of Photons in Silicon......Page 73
2. Physics and Properties of Silicon Semiconductor......Page 78
2.1 Structure and Growth of Silicon Crystals......Page 79
2.1.1 Imperfections and Defects in Crystals......Page 82
2.2 Energy Band Structure and Energy Gap......Page 84
2.2.1 Energy Gap Dependence on Temperature and Pressure in Silicon......Page 86
2.2.2 Effective Mass......Page 87
2.2.2.1 Conductivity and Density-of-States Effective Masses in Silicon......Page 90
2.3.1 Effective Density-of-States......Page 96
2.3.1.1 Degenerate and Non-Degenerate Semiconductors......Page 103
2.3.1.2 Intrinsic Fermi-Level and Concentration of Carriers......Page 105
2.3.2 Donors and Acceptors......Page 109
2.3.2.1 Extrinsic Semiconductors and Fermi Level......Page 110
2.3.2.2 Compensated Semiconductors......Page 117
2.3.2.3 Maximum Temperature of Operation of Extrinsic Semiconductors......Page 120
2.3.2.4 Quasi-Fermi Levels......Page 121
2.3.3.1 Bandgap Narrowing in Heavily Doped Semiconductors......Page 123
2.3.3.2 Reduction of the Impurity Ionization-Energy in Heavily Doped Semiconductors......Page 127
3. Transport Phenomena in Semiconductors......Page 130
3.1.1 Drift and Mobility......Page 131
3.1.1.1 Mobility in Silicon at High Electric Fields or Up to Large Doping Concentrations......Page 135
3.1.2 Resistivity......Page 141
3.2 Diffusion Mechanism......Page 144
3.2.1 Einstein’s Relationship......Page 146
3.3 Thermal Equilibrium and Excess Carriers in Semiconductors......Page 148
3.3.1.1 Bulk Processes in Direct Semiconductors......Page 150
3.3.1.2 Bulk Processes in Indirect Semiconductors......Page 153
3.3.1.4 Lifetime of Minority Carriers in Silicon......Page 158
3.4 The Continuity Equations......Page 159
3.4.1 The Dielectric Relaxation Time and Debye Length......Page 163
3.4.2 Ambipolar Transport......Page 164
3.4.3 Charge Migration and Field-Free Regions......Page 167
3.4.3.1 Carrier Diffusion in Silicon Radiation Detectors......Page 170
3.4.3.2 Measurement of Charge Migration in Silicon Radiation Detectors......Page 176
3.5 Hall Effect in Silicon Semiconductors......Page 182
4. Properties of the p-n Junctions of Silicon Radiation Devices......Page 190
4.1.1 Standard Planar Float-Zone Technology......Page 191
4.1.2 MESA Technology......Page 192
4.2 Basic Principles of Junction Operation......Page 195
4.2.1 Unpolarized p - n Junction......Page 197
4.2.2 Polarized p - n Junction......Page 200
4.2.3 Capacitance......Page 202
4.2.4 Charge Collection Measurements......Page 204
4.2.5 Charge Transport in Silicon Diodes......Page 205
4.2.6 Leakage or Reverse Current......Page 215
4.3 Charge Collection Efficiency and Hecht Equation......Page 217
4.4 Junction Characteristics Down to Cryogenic Temperature......Page 221
4.4.1.1 Rectification Property at Room Temperature......Page 223
4.4.1.2 I - V Characteristics Down to Cryogenic Temperature......Page 225
4.4.2 Complex Impedance of Junctions and Cryogenic Temperatures......Page 228
5.1 Spectroscopic Characteristics of Standard Planar Detectors......Page 236
5.1.1 Noise Characterization of Silicon Detectors......Page 240
5.1.2 Energy Resolution of Standard Planar Detectors......Page 242
5.1.3 Energy Resolution and the Fano Factor......Page 244
5.2 Microstrip Detectors......Page 246
5.3 Pixel Detector Device......Page 252
5.3.1 The PILATUS Detecting Device......Page 253
5.3.3 The DEPFET Detecting Device......Page 254
5.3.4 The Medipix-Type Detecting Device......Page 255
5.3.4.1 Charge Sharing......Page 257
5.3.4.2 Pattern Recognition......Page 262
5.3.4.3 Mip’s......Page 265
5.3.4.4 Protons, α-Particles and Heavier Ions......Page 266
5.3.4.5 Neutrons......Page 268
5.3.5 Timepix......Page 271
6.1.1 Photodiodes......Page 274
6.1.1.1 Photodiode and Electrical Model......Page 276
6.1.2 Avalanche Photodiodes......Page 281
6.1.3 Geiger-mode Avalanche Photodiodes and Silicon Photomultiplier Detectors......Page 284
6.1.4 Electrical Characteristics of SiPM Devices as Function of Temperature and Frequency......Page 292
6.1.4.1 Capacitance Response......Page 293
6.1.4.3 Electrical Model for SiPMs......Page 297
6.2 Photovoltaic and Solar Cells......Page 303
6.3 Neutron Detection with Silicon Detectors......Page 308
6.3.1 Principles of Neutron Detection with Silicon Detectors......Page 309
6.3.1.1 Signal in Silicon Detectors for Thermal Neutrons......Page 311
6.3.1.2 Signals in Silicon Detectors by Fast Neutrons......Page 319
6.3.2 3-D Neutron Detectors......Page 322
7. Examples of Applications of Silicon Devices in Physics and Medical Physics......Page 324
7.1 Silicon Calorimetry......Page 325
7.1.1 Silicon Electromagnetic Calorimeters......Page 326
7.1.2 Luminosity Monitors......Page 327
7.1.3 Silicon Hadronic Calorimeters......Page 331
7.2 Silicon Vertex and Tracker Detectors......Page 333
7.3 Applications in Space and Balloon Experiments......Page 342
7.3.1.1 ATIC......Page 343
7.3.1.2 CREAM......Page 344
7.3.1.3 CAPRICE......Page 345
7.3.1.4 TIGRE, MEGA......Page 346
7.3.2.1 AGILE......Page 347
7.3.2.2 Fermi-LAT......Page 348
7.3.2.3 NINA......Page 349
7.3.2.4 PAMELA......Page 350
7.3.3.1 SilEye Detectors......Page 352
7.3.3.2 The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS)......Page 353
7.4.1.1 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)......Page 357
7.4.1.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)......Page 364
7.4.1.3 Example of Silicon Microstrip Detectors Used in Scanners......Page 367
7.4.1.5 Example of Silicon Pixel Detectors Used in Scanners......Page 369
7.4.1.6 Example of Silicon Photomultipliers Detectors Used in Scanners......Page 371
7.4.2 X-Ray Medical Imaging......Page 374
7.4.2.1 The Contrast......Page 375
7.4.2.2 The Modulation Transfer Function......Page 376
7.4.2.3 The Detective Quantum Efficiency......Page 377
Appendix A General Properties and Physical Constants......Page 380
A.1 Physical Constants......Page 381
Bibliography......Page 386
Index......Page 414