Sharks and Their Relatives II: Biodiversity, Adaptive Physiology, and Conservation (Marine Biology)

Sharks And Their Relatives II: Biodiversity, Adaptive Physiology, And Conservation......Page 2
Sharks And Their Relatives II: Biodiversity, Adaptive Physiology, And Conservation......Page 4
Crc Marine Biology Series......Page 3
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
The Editors......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
Section I ChondrichthyanBiodiversity: Ecosystems and Distribution of Fauna......Page 17
1.1 Introduction: The Epipelagic Oceanic Ecosystem......Page 19
1.2.1 Biodiversity and Systematics......Page 20
1.2.2 Biogeography......Page 22
1.3.1 Reproductive Biology and Strategies......Page 23
1.3.3 Feeding Ecology and Behavior......Page 25
1.3.4 Spatial Dynamics, Population Structure, and Migrations......Page 32
1.4.1 Exploitation......Page 36
1.4.2 Demography and Population Status......Page 39
1.4.3 Management and Conservation......Page 43
References......Page 44
Contents......Page 53
2.1 Introduction......Page 54
2.2.1 Biodiversity and Systematics......Page 55
2.2.2 Biogeography and Bathymetry......Page 57
2.3.1 Reproductive Biology......Page 58
2.3.1.1 Sharks......Page 59
2.3.1.2 Skates......Page 63
2.3.1.3 Holocephalans......Page 64
2.3.2 Age and Growth......Page 65
2.3.3 Demography and Population Dynamics......Page 70
2.3.4 Diet and Feeding Habits......Page 72
2.3.5 Population Segregation, Movements, and Migration......Page 73
2.4.1.1 Case Study 1: Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery......Page 74
2.4.1.2 Case Study 2: Northeast Atlantic Deepwater Fisheries......Page 76
2.4.1.4 Case Study 4: Maldives Gulper Shark Fishery......Page 77
2.4.2 Management......Page 78
2.4.3 Conservation Status......Page 79
2.5 Conclusions......Page 80
References......Page 81
Annotated Checklist of Extant Deepwater Chondrichthyans......Page 91
Class Chondrichthyes......Page 92
Contents......Page 131
3.2.1 High Latitude Seas Ecosystems......Page 132
3.2.2 Northern Oceans Ecosystems......Page 133
3.2.3 Southern Oceans Ecosystems......Page 134
3.3.1 Classification......Page 135
3.3.2 Zoogeographic Sources......Page 138
3.3.3 Zoogeography......Page 139
3.4.1 Hexanchiformes......Page 142
3.4.2 Squaliformes......Page 143
3.4.3 Squatiniformes......Page 145
3.4.6 Orectolobiformes......Page 146
3.4.8 Carcharhiniformes......Page 147
3.4.9 Rajiformes......Page 149
3.5.1 Reproduction......Page 151
3.5.2 Age and Growth......Page 154
3.5.3 Demography......Page 159
3.5.5 Habitat Association......Page 161
3.6.1 Fisheries......Page 163
3.6.2 Conservation......Page 165
3.7 Summary......Page 166
References......Page 167
Contents......Page 175
4.1 Introduction......Page 176
4.2.2 Biodiversity......Page 177
4.3.2 Zoogeography......Page 180
4.3.3 Centers of Diversity and Endemism......Page 184
4.3.4 Habitat Association......Page 185
4.4.1 Reproductive Biology......Page 187
4.4.2 Age and Growth......Page 190
4.4.3 Feeding Ecology and Behavior......Page 196
4.4.4 Population Segregation, Movements, and Migration......Page 198
4.4.5 Demography......Page 199
4.5.1.1.1 Case Study: Indonesia......Page 200
4.5.1.2 Habitat Changes......Page 203
4.5.2 Management......Page 204
4.5.3 Conservation Status......Page 206
Acknowledgments......Page 207
References......Page 208
Subclass Elasmobranchii: Sharks and Rays......Page 217
References......Page 254
5.1 Introduction......Page 257
5.2 South American Paleogeography and the Occurrence of Potamotrygonid Stingrays......Page 258
5.3 History of the Investigation of Potamotrygonid Stingrays......Page 260
5.4.1.1 Potamotrygonidae Garman, 1877......Page 261
5.4.1.2 The Genera of Potamotrygonidae......Page 262
5.4.1.3.2 Plesiotrygon Rosa, Castello and Thorson......Page 263
5.4.1.3.3 Potamotrygon Garman......Page 264
5.4.2 Phylogeny......Page 268
5.5 Habitat and Ecology......Page 273
5.6.1 Diet and Feeding......Page 274
5.6.2 Mating, Reproduction, and Reproductive Cycle......Page 275
5.6.3 Movements and Behavior......Page 278
5.7 Fisheries and Uses......Page 280
5.9 Conclusions......Page 282
References......Page 283
Appendix 5.1......Page 292
6.1 Introduction......Page 299
6.2.2.1 Rajidae: Skates......Page 300
6.2.2.2 Rhinobatidae: Guitarfish......Page 301
6.2.3 Myliobatiformes......Page 306
6.3 Comparative Life History Analyses......Page 307
6.4 Geographic Variation in Life History Traits......Page 311
6.5 Compensatory Dynamics......Page 312
6.6 Spatial Strategies......Page 315
6.6.1 Migration Patterns of Western Atlantic Skates......Page 316
6.6.3 Winter Skate and Georges Bank......Page 320
6.6.4 Cownose Rays......Page 321
References......Page 323
Section II Adaptive Physiology......Page 333
7.1.1 Background and Concepts......Page 335
7.1.3 Home Range and Activity Space......Page 337
7.2.1 Patterns in Juvenile Activity Space......Page 338
7.2.2 Changes between Juvenile and Adult Habitats......Page 341
7.3.1 Changes in Vertical Movement Patterns......Page 345
7.3.2 Changes in Habitat Depth......Page 346
7.5 Ontogenetic Shifts in Diet: Niche Expansion or Contraction......Page 349
7.6.1 Physiological ( Abiotic) Drivers......Page 351
7.6.2 Competition and Distribution of Resources......Page 353
7.6.3 Predation......Page 354
7.6.4 Sex- Mediated Differences in Ontogenetic Shifts......Page 355
7.7 Implications for Management......Page 356
Acknowledgments......Page 357
References......Page 358
Contents......Page 367
8.1 Introduction......Page 368
8.2.1 Historical Perspective: The Advent of Electronic Tagging......Page 370
8.2.2.1 Focal Tracking......Page 371
8.2.2.2 Static Array Monitoring......Page 373
8.2.2.3 Combined Radio- Acoustic Systems......Page 374
8.2.3.1 Data- Logging Tags......Page 375
8.2.3.2 Satellite- Linked Archival Tracking......Page 377
8.2.4 Recent Tag Developments......Page 382
8.3 Movement Analysis......Page 386
8.3.1 Types of Data......Page 387
8.3.2.1 Tortuosity......Page 388
8.3.2.2 Home Range......Page 390
8.3.2.3 The Question of Scale: First- Passage Time Analysis......Page 391
8.3.2.4 Pattern Identification: Signal Processing......Page 392
8.3.3.1 Testing for Habitat Selection......Page 394
8.3.3.3 Searching Natural Environments......Page 396
8.3.3.4 Optimal Lévy Flights......Page 397
8.3.3.5 Testing Empirical Data......Page 398
8.4 Future Perspectives......Page 401
References......Page 402
9.1 Introduction......Page 409
9.2.1 Peripheral Anatomy......Page 413
9.2.2 Central Anatomy and Pathways......Page 414
9.2.2.2 The Electrosensory Brain and Its Afferents......Page 415
9.3 Adaptations to the Environment......Page 416
9.3.1.1 Coastal Benthic Nervous System......Page 417
9.3.2.1 Deepwater Nervous System......Page 420
9.3.3 Coastal Pelagic......Page 422
9.3.3.1 Coastal Pelagic Nervous System......Page 423
9.3.4 Oceanic Pelagic......Page 431
9.4.1 Sharks of the Order Squaliformes......Page 432
9.4.2 Sharks of the Order Lamniformes......Page 433
9.4.2.1 Lamniformes Nervous System......Page 436
9.4.3.1 Carcharhiniformes Nervous System......Page 437
9.5 Conclusions......Page 438
References......Page 439
Appendix 9.1......Page 445
Contents......Page 451
10.2.1 Microsatellites......Page 452
10.2.3 DNA Sequence Data......Page 454
10.3.1 I ntroduction......Page 455
10.3.2 Methods......Page 456
10.3.3 Mating Systems in Elasmobranchs......Page 457
10.4.1 I ntroduction......Page 459
10.4.2.2 Phylogeographic Approaches......Page 460
10.4.3 Female Philopatry in Elasmobranchs......Page 461
10.5.1 I ntroduction......Page 462
10.5.1.1 Historical Effective Population Size......Page 463
10.5.1.2 Contemporary Effective Population Size......Page 464
10.5.2.3 Temporal Estimates......Page 465
10.5.3 E ffective Population Size in Elasmobranchs......Page 466
References......Page 467
Contents......Page 475
11.2 Stress......Page 476
11.2.1 Natural Stressors......Page 477
11.2.2.2 Capture......Page 478
11.3 Physiological Effects......Page 479
11.3.1.2 Corticosteroids......Page 480
11.3.2 Secondary Stress Response......Page 481
11.3.2.2 Acid- Base Disturbances......Page 482
11.3.2.4 Hematology and Heat Shock Proteins......Page 485
11.3.3 Tertiary Stress Response......Page 486
11.4 Baseline......Page 487
11.5.1 Metabolic Scope......Page 488
11.5.2 E ndothermy......Page 489
11.6 Compensatory Mechanisms......Page 493
11.7.1 L aboratory Studies......Page 494
11.7.2.2 Acoustic Tracking......Page 496
11.7.2.3 Archival Tagging......Page 498
11.8 Conclusions......Page 499
References......Page 500
12.1 Introduction......Page 507
12.2.1 Pesticides......Page 508
12.2.2 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-......Page 513
12.2.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls......Page 514
12.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 518
12.2.5 Brominated Flame Retardants......Page 520
12.2.6 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products......Page 522
12.3 Metals, Metalloids, and Organometals......Page 523
12.3.1 Mercury......Page 524
12.3.2 Cadmium......Page 539
12.3.3 A rsenic......Page 540
12.4 Biotransformation, Pollutant Tolerance, and Biomarkers of Pollutant Exposure and Effects......Page 541
12.5 Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 543
References......Page 544
Section III Conservation......Page 555
13.1 Introduction......Page 557
13.2.1 Study Area......Page 559
13.2.2 Attack Data Collection......Page 561
13.2.4 Statistical Analysis......Page 562
13.3.4 Attack Timing: Time of Day......Page 563
13.3.5 Attack Timing: Moon Phase......Page 566
13.3.8 Victim Demographics and Apparel......Page 568
13.3.9 Victim Activity......Page 569
13.3.11 Attacking Shark Species......Page 570
13.3.12 Attacking Shark Behavior......Page 571
13.3.13 Long- Term Attack Trend......Page 572
13.3.14 Beach Use......Page 573
13.4 Analysis and Interpretations......Page 574
13.5 Conclusions and Prospects......Page 578
References......Page 580
14.1 Introduction......Page 583
14.2.1 Shark Exclusion Devices......Page 584
14.2.3 Shark Control ( Fishing) Devices......Page 586
14.3.1 Sharks......Page 589
14.3.1.1 Localized Stock Depletion......Page 593
14.3.2 Bycatch......Page 594
14.5 Catch Reduction Initiatives......Page 597
14.6 Shark Control Mechanisms as a Research Platform......Page 598
14.7 The Future of Shark Control Mechanisms......Page 600
References......Page 602
15.1 Introduction......Page 609
15.2 DNA Forensic Approaches......Page 610
15.2.1 Multiplex PCR Approach to Shark Species Identification......Page 611
15.2.2 DNA Barcoding for Shark Species Identification......Page 613
15.3 Applying DNA Forensics to Study the Shark Fin Trade and Its Impacts......Page 614
15.4 Tracking the Population Origin of Sharks in International Fisheries and Trade......Page 617
15.5 DNA Applications in Shark Fisheries Law Enforcement......Page 620
Acknowledgments......Page 621
References......Page 622
Contents......Page 627
16.2 The Complete Role of Predators......Page 628
16.2.2 Risk Effects......Page 629
16.2.3 Cascading Effects of Predator– Prey Interactions......Page 630
16.3.1 Elasmobranchs as Predators......Page 631
16.3.1.1 Effects on Prey......Page 632
16.3.1.2 Cascading Effects......Page 634
16.3.2 Elasmobranch Roles in Nutrient Dynamics......Page 637
16.3.3 Elasmobranchs as Prey......Page 638
16.4 Toward a Deeper Understanding of the Ecological Importance of Elasmobranchs......Page 639
References......Page 643
A.1 Time- Series Analysis......Page 650
A.3 Estimating Trophic Position......Page 651
A.4 Empirical Estimates of Elasmobranch Impacts on Their Prey and Communities......Page 652
Contents......Page 655
17.1 Introduction......Page 656
17.3 Life History Strategies......Page 657
17.4 Life Histories and the Intrinsic Rate of Population Increase......Page 659
17.5 Density- Dependent Mortality and Productivity of Shark Populations......Page 661
17.6 Comparative Demographic Studies of Chondrichthyan Populations......Page 664
17.7 Age- Structured Models Incorporating Density Dependence in Juvenile Survival......Page 666
17.8 Management Implications of Life Histories and Demography......Page 668
17.9.1 Documented Population Declines of Sharks and Rays in the Mediterranean Sea......Page 669
17.9.2 Steep Declines of Australian Deepwater Sharks......Page 670
17.9.3 E xtirpation of the British Columbia Basking Shark......Page 672
17.9.4 L ocal Extinctions of North Atlantic Skates......Page 673
17.9.5 Regional Extinction of the Angel Shark......Page 674
17.9.6 Regional Extinctions of Guitarfishes and Sawfishes......Page 675
17.10.2 The Global Status of Chondrichthyans......Page 676
17.10.4 The Distribution of Threat Is Evolutionarily and Ecologically Nonrandom......Page 677
17.11 Future Threats to Sharks and Rays Due to Climate Change......Page 678
17.11.1 Climate Change, Fishing, and Extinction Risk in the Australian Grey Reef Shark......Page 679
17.11.2 Vulnerability of Australian Sharks and Rays to Climate Change......Page 680
17.12 Prioritization for Action: Which Sharks and Rays Require Most Urgent Attention?......Page 682
17.13 Research Required to Manage and Conserve Chondrichthyans......Page 683
Acknowledgments......Page 685
References......Page 686
Color Insert......Page 696