Shale Oil and Gas Production Processes

Cover
Shale Oil and Gas Production Processes
Copyright
About the author
Preface
I: Gas and oil from tight shale
1 - Gas and oil in tight formations
	1. Introduction
	2. Definitions
		2.1 Crude oil
		2.2 Opportunity crudes
		2.3 Natural gas
		2.4 Gas hydrates
		2.5 Coalbed methane
		2.6 Other sources of gas
		2.7 Wax
	3. Tight gas and tight oil
		3.1 Tight gas
		3.2 Tight oil
	4. Origin
		4.1 Origin
		4.2 Shale formations
		4.3 Tight formations
		4.4 Geopressurized zones
	5. Oil shale and shale oil
		5.1 Oil shale
			5.1.1 General properties
			5.1.2 Mineral constituents
			5.1.3 Grade
			5.1.4 Porosity
			5.1.5 Permeability
			5.1.6 Compressive strength
			5.1.7 Thermal conductivity
			5.1.8 Thermal decomposition
		5.2 Kerogen and shale oil
	6. Resources and reserves
	7. Tight oil, tight gas, and energy security
	References
2 - Resources
	1. Introduction
	2. Natural gas in tight formations
		2.1 US resources
			2.1.1 Antrim shale
			2.1.2 Bakken shale
			2.1.3 Barnett shale
			2.1.4 Baxter shale
			2.1.5 Big Sandy
			2.1.6 Caney shale
			2.1.7 Chattanooga shale
			2.1.8 Conasauga shale
			2.1.9 Devonian Low Thermal Maturity play and Greater Siltstone shale gas play
			2.1.10 Eagle Ford shale
			2.1.11 Fayetteville shale
			2.1.12 Floyd shale
			2.1.13 Haynesville shale
			2.1.14 Hermosa shale
			2.1.15 Huron shale
			2.1.16 Lewis shale
			2.1.17 Mancos shale
			2.1.18 Marcellus shale
			2.1.19 Neal shale
			2.1.20 New Albany shale
			2.1.21 Niobrara shale
			2.1.22 Ohio shale
			2.1.23 Pearsall shale
			2.1.24 Pierre shale
			2.1.25 Utah shale
			2.1.26 Utica shale
			2.1.27 Woodford shale
		2.2 World resources
			2.2.1 Argentina
			2.2.2 Canada
				2.2.2.1 Colorado Group
				2.2.2.2 Duvernay shale
				2.2.2.3 Horn River basin
				2.2.2.4 Horton Bluff Group
				2.2.2.5 Montney shale
				2.2.2.6 Utica Group
			2.2.3 China
			2.2.4 India
			2.2.5 Poland
			2.2.6 South Africa
			2.2.7 Turkey
	3. Oil in tight formations
		3.1 United States
			3.1.1 Antrim shale
			3.1.2 Avalon and Bone Springs shale
			3.1.3 Bakken shale
			3.1.4 Barnett shale
			3.1.5 Baxter shale
			3.1.6 Big Sandy
			3.1.7 Caney shale
			3.1.8 Chattanooga shale
			3.1.9 Conasauga shale
			3.1.10 Eagle Ford shale
			3.1.11 Fayetteville shale
			3.1.12 Floyd shale
			3.1.13 Gammon shale
			3.1.14 Haynesville shale
			3.1.15 Hermosa shale
			3.1.16 Lewis shale
			3.1.17 Mancos shale
			3.1.18 Marcellus shale
			3.1.19 Monterey/Santos shale
			3.1.20 Neal shale
			3.1.21 New Albany shale
			3.1.22 Niobrara shale
			3.1.23 Ohio shale
			3.1.24 Pearsall shale
			3.1.25 Pierre shale
			3.1.26 Utah shale
			3.1.27 Utica shale
			3.1.28 Woodford shale
		3.2 Canada
			3.2.1 Cardium Group
			3.2.2 Colorado Group
			3.2.3 Duvernay shale
			3.2.4 Horn River basin
			3.2.5 Horton Bluff Group
			3.2.6 Montney shale
			3.2.7 Utica Group
		3.3 Other countries
	4. The future of resources in tight formations
	References
3 - Reservoirs and reservoir fluids
	1. Introduction
	2. Sediments
		2.1 Rock types
		2.2 Characteristics
		2.3 Composition
			2.3.1 Inorganic constituents
			2.3.2 Organic constituents
		2.4 Texture
		2.5 Structure
	3. Reservoirs and reservoir evaluation
		3.1 Rock identification
		3.2 Structural types
		3.3 Heterogeneity
		3.4 Porosity and permeability
		3.5 Reservoir morphology
	4. Tight formations
		4.1 Shale formations
		4.2 Sandstone and carbonate formations
		4.3 Development and production
	5. Core analyses
		5.1 Handling and testing cores
		5.2 Routine core analyses
		5.3 Specialized analyses
	6. US resources
		6.1 Antrim shale
		6.2 Bakken shale
		6.3 Barnett shale
		6.4 Baxter shale
		6.5 Caney shale
		6.6 Chattanooga shale
		6.7 Conasauga shale
		6.8 Eagle Ford shale
		6.9 Fayetteville shale
		6.10 Floyd shale
		6.11 Haynesville shale
		6.12 Hermosa shale
		6.13 Lewis shale
		6.14 Mancos shale
		6.15 Marcellus shale
		6.16 Neal shale
		6.17 New Albany shale
		6.18 Niobrara shale
		6.19 Ohio shale
		6.20 Pearsall shale
		6.21 Pierre shale
		6.22 Utah shale
		6.23 Utica shale
		6.24 Woodford shale
	7. World resources
		7.1 Argentina (Neuquén basin)
		7.2 Canada
			7.2.1 Colorado Group
			7.2.2 Duvernay shale
			7.2.3 Horn River basin
			7.2.4 Horton Bluff Group
			7.2.5 Montney shale
			7.2.6 Utica Group
		7.3 China (Sichuan and Tarim basin)
		7.4 Poland
		7.5 South Africa
	References
4 - Development and production
	1. Introduction
	2. Tight reservoirs and conventional reservoirs
	3. Well drilling and completion
		3.1 Reservoir character
		3.2 Drilling
			3.2.1 Horizontal drilling
			3.2.2 Pad drilling
			3.2.3 Stacked wells
			3.2.4 Multilateral drilling
			3.2.5 Water requirements
		3.3 Well completion
		3.4 Well integrity
		3.5 Production, abandonment, and reclamation
	4. Hydraulic fracturing
		4.1 General aspects
		4.2 Fracturing fluids
		4.3 Fracturing fluid additives
		4.4 Fracture diagnostics
			4.4.1 Direct far-field techniques
			4.4.2 Direct near-wellbore techniques
			4.4.3 Indirect fracture techniques
	5. Production trends
		5.1 Technology
		5.2 Product stability
		5.3 The future
	References
5 - Hydraulic fracturing
	1. Introduction
	2. Reservoir evaluation
		2.1 Geological and geotechnical evaluation
		2.2 Formation integrity
		2.3 Permeability and porosity
		2.4 Residual fluid saturation and capillary pressure
		2.5 Mechanical properties
	3. The fracturing process
		3.1 Equipment
		3.2 Well development and completion
		3.3 Fracturing fluids
		3.4 Fracture patterns
		3.5 Fracture optimization
		3.6 Fracture monitoring
		3.7 Fracture diagnostics
			3.7.1 Direct far-field techniques
			3.7.2 Direct near-wellbore techniques
			3.7.3 Indirect fracture techniques
		3.8 Flowback
	4. Proppants
		4.1 Types
			4.1.1 Silica sand
			4.1.2 Resin-coated proppant
			4.1.3 Manufactured ceramic materials
			4.1.4 Other types
		4.2 Properties
			4.2.1 Downhole scaling
			4.2.2 Embedment
			4.2.3 Flowback
			4.2.4 Fracture conductivity
			4.2.5 Pack rearrangement
			4.2.6 Permeability
			4.2.7 Production and migration of fines
			4.2.8 Shape, size, and concentration
			4.2.9 Size and concentration
			4.2.10 Stress
	5. Hydraulic fracturing in tight reservoirs
		5.1 Reservoir selection
		5.2 Fracture treatment optimization
		5.3 Design considerations and design procedures
		5.4 Fracture fluid selection
		5.5 Proppants
			5.5.1 Proppant selection
			5.5.2 Proppant transport and placement
		5.6 Post-fracture reservoir evaluation and production data
	References
6 - Fluids management
	1. Introduction
	2. Fluids evaluation
		2.1 Natural gas
		2.2 Crude oil
		2.3 Non-hydrocarbon fluids
	3. Water requirements, use, and sources
		3.1 Requirements
		3.2 Use
		3.3 Sources
			3.3.1 Surface water
			3.3.2 Groundwater
			3.3.3 Municipal water supplies
			3.3.4 Wastewater and power plant cooling water
			3.3.5 Reservoir water and recycled flow back water
			3.3.6 Other sources
		3.4 Water contamination
	4. Effects on water sources
	5. Water disposal
	6. Waste fluids
		6.1 Fracturing fluid requirements
		6.2 Fracturing fluid composition
		6.3 Fracturing fluid handling and storage
		6.4 Transportation
	7. Water management and disposal
		7.1 Injection wells
		7.2 Municipal waste water treatment facilities
		7.3 Industrial waste treatment facilities
		7.4 Other industrial uses
		7.5 Flowback water recycling and Re-use
	References
7. Analysis of gas and condensate from tight formations
	1. Introduction
	2. Types of gases
		2.1 Shale gas
		2.2 Natural gas
		2.3 Refinery gas
		2.4 Coal gas
	3. Properties of gas streams
		3.1 Chemical properties
		3.2 Physical properties
			3.2.1 Calorific value
			3.2.2 Composition
			3.2.3 Density and relative density
			3.2.4 Dew point
			3.2.5 Flammability
			3.2.6 High molecular weight hydrocarbons derivatives
			3.2.7 Methane number
			3.2.8 Sulfur content
			3.2.9 Volatility and vapor pressure
			3.2.10 Water content
			3.2.11 Wobbe Index
	4. Analytical methods
		4.1 Sampling
		4.2 Gas chromatography
		4.3 Infrared absorption
		4.4 Ultraviolet absorption
		4.5 Chemiluminescence detector
		4.6 Thermal conductivity
		4.7 Flame ionization detection
	5. Gas condensate
		5.1 Types of condensate
			5.1.1 Gas condensate
			5.1.2 Lease condensate
			5.1.3 Plant condensate
		5.2 Production
		5.3 Condensate stabilization
			5.3.1 Flash vaporization
			5.3.2 Stabilization by fractionation
			5.3.3 Condensate storage
		5.4 Properties
			5.4.1 Chemical composition
			5.4.2 Physical properties
			5.4.3 Color
			5.4.4 Density
			5.4.5 Dew point pressure
			5.4.6 Flammability
			5.4.7 Solubility
			5.4.8 Solvent power
			5.4.9 Sulfur content
			5.4.10 Surface tension
			5.4.11 Volatility
	References
8. Processing gas from tight formations
	1. Introduction
	2. Tight gas composition and properties
		2.1 Composition
		2.2 Properties
			2.2.1 Antrim shale formation
			2.2.2 Barnett shale formation
			2.2.3 Fayetteville shale formation
			2.2.4 Haynesville shale formation
			2.2.5 Marcellus shale formation
			2.2.6 New Albany shale formation
	3. Gas treating processes
		3.1 Water removal
			3.1.1 Absorption
			3.1.2 Adsorption
			3.1.3 Chemical treatment
			3.1.4 Filters and scrubbers
			3.1.5 Membrane processes
		3.2 Liquids removal
			3.2.1 Absorption process
			3.2.2 Cryogenic process
		3.3 Fractionation of natural gas liquids
		3.4 Nitrogen removal
		3.5 Acid gas removal
			3.5.1 Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide removal
			3.5.2 Sulfur recovery
				3.5.2.1 Liquid redox process
				3.5.2.2 Claus process
		3.6 Enrichment
	4. Tight gas processing
		4.1 Wellhead processing
			4.1.1 Water removal
			4.1.2 Condensate removal
		4.2 Other aspects
		4.3 Chemicals from tight gas
	5. Product evaluation
		5.1 Methane
		5.2 Ethane
		5.3 Propane
		5.4 Butane isomers
	References
9 - Analysis of oil from tight formations
	1. Introduction
	2. Tight oil
	3. Crude oil assay
		3.1 Assay
		3.2 Specifications
	4. Chemical and physical properties
		4.1 Sampling
		4.2 Chemical and physical analyses
			4.2.1 Boiling point distribution
			4.2.2 Density, specific gravity, and API gravity
			4.2.3 Emulsion formation
			4.2.4 Evaporation
			4.2.5 Fire point and flash point
			4.2.6 Fractionation
			4.2.7 Metals content
			4.2.8 Pour point
			4.2.9 Salt content
			4.2.10 Sulfur content
			4.2.11 Surface tension and interfacial tension
			4.2.12 Viscosity
			4.2.13 Water and sediment
			4.2.14 Other properties
		4.3 Chromatographic analyses
			4.3.1 Gas chromatography
			4.3.2 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
			4.3.3 High performance liquid chromatography
			4.3.4 Thin layer chromatography
		4.4 Spectroscopic analyses
			4.4.1 Infrared spectroscopy
			4.4.2 Mass spectrometry
			4.4.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance
			4.4.4 Ultraviolet spectroscopy
			4.4.5 X-ray diffraction
		4.5 Molecular weight
		4.6 The future
	References
10 - Processing oil from tight formations
	1. Introduction
	2. Properties of tight oil
		2.1 General properties
			2.1.1 Corrosivity
			2.1.2 Flammability
			2.1.3 Sulfur and hydrogen sulfide
			2.1.4 Volatility
			2.1.5 Inorganic constituents
		2.2 Incompatibility
	3. Wellhead processing
	4. Transportation and handling
	5. Behavior in refinery processes
		5.1 Desalting
		5.2 Refining options
		5.3 Fouling during refining
		5.4 Other refining issues
	6. Mitigating refinery impact
	7. Product evaluation
		7.1 Naphtha
			7.1.1 Aniline point and mixed aniline point
			7.1.2 Benzene and aromatic derivatives
			7.1.3 Composition
			7.1.4 Correlative methods
			7.1.5 Density
			7.1.6 Dew point pressure
			7.1.7 Distillation
			7.1.8 Evaporation rate
			7.1.9 Flash point
			7.1.10 Hydrocarbon analysis
			7.1.11 Octane number
			7.1.12 Odor and color
			7.1.13 Sulfur content
			7.1.14 Vapor pressure
			7.1.15 Viscosity
			7.1.16 Volatility
		7.2 Kerosene
			7.2.1 Acidity
			7.2.2 Burning characteristics
			7.2.3 Calorific value
			7.2.4 Composition
			7.2.5 Density
			7.2.6 Flash point
			7.2.7 Freezing point
			7.2.8 Smoke point
			7.2.9 Viscosity
			7.2.10 Volatility
			7.2.11 Water and sediment
			7.2.12 Gas Oil
			7.2.13 Acidity
			7.2.14 Ash
			7.2.15 Calorific value
			7.2.16 Carbon residue
			7.2.17 Composition
			7.2.18 Density
			7.2.19 Metallic constituents
			7.2.20 Pour point
			7.2.21 Stability
			7.2.22 Viscosity
			7.2.23 Water and sediment
		7.3 Resid
			7.3.1 Production and properties
			7.3.2 Acid number
			7.3.3 Asphaltene content
			7.3.4 Carbon disulfide insoluble constituents
			7.3.5 Carbon residue
			7.3.6 Density
	References
II: Shale oil (kerogen-derived oil)
11 - Origin and properties of oil shale
	1. Introduction
	2. History of oil shale use
	3. Origin
	4. Oil shale types
		4.1 Terrestrial oil shale
		4.2 Lacustrine oil shale
		4.3 Marine oil shale
	5. Composition and properties
		5.1 Mineral components
		5.2 Grade
		5.3 Physical properties
			5.3.1 Permeability
			5.3.2 Porosity
			5.3.3 Compressive strength
		5.4 Thermal properties
			5.4.1 Thermal conductivity
			5.4.2 Thermal decomposition
		5.5 Combustion
	References
12 - Oil shale resources
	1. Introduction
	2. Total resources
	3. Occurrence and history by country
		3.1 Australia
		3.2 Brazil
		3.3 Canada
		3.4 China
		3.5 Egypt
		3.6 Estonia
		3.7 Ethiopia
		3.8 France
		3.9 Germany
		3.10 India
		3.11 Indonesia
		3.12 Israel
		3.13 Jordan
		3.14 Kazakhstan
		3.15 Mongolia
		3.16 Morocco
		3.17 Nigeria
		3.18 Russia
		3.19 Scotland
		3.20 Serbia
		3.21 South Africa
		3.22 Spain
		3.23 Sweden
		3.24 Syria
		3.25 Thailand
		3.26 Turkey
		3.27 United Kingdom
		3.28 United States of America
	4. Utilization
	References
13 - Kerogen
	1. Introduction
	2. Origin
	3. Composition and properties
	4. Types
	5. Isolation
	6. Methods for probing kerogen structure
		6.1 Elemental analysis
		6.2 Functional group analysis
		6.3 Oxidation
		6.4 Thermal methods
		6.5 Acid-catalyzed hydrogenolysis
	7. Structural models
	References
14 - Mining and retorting
	1. Introduction
	2. Mining
	3. Size reduction
	4. Direct retorting
		4.1 Alberta Taciuk process
		4.2 Allis-Chalmers roller grate process
		4.3 Chattanooga process
		4.4 Chevron retorting process
		4.5 Dravo circular traveling grate
		4.6 EcoShale In-Capsule process
		4.7 Enefit process
		4.8 Fushun generator type retorting
		4.9 Galoter retort
		4.10 Gas combustion retorting process
		4.11 Hytort process
		4.12 Kiviter retort
		4.13 Lurgi-Ruhrgas process
		4.14 Nevada-Texas-Utah retort
		4.15 Oil Shale Exploration Company process
		4.16 Paraho retort
		4.17 Petroter retort
		4.18 Shell shale retorting process
		4.19 Superior oil circular grate retorting process
		4.20 Superior oil multi-mineral process
		4.21 Union B retort
	5. Indirect retorting
		5.1 Lurgi-Ruhrgas retort
		5.2 Paraho retort
		5.3 Pumpherston retort
		5.4 Petrosix retort
		5.5 Salermo retort
		5.6 Shell pellet heat exchange retorting process
		5.7 Tosco II process
	6. Other processes
		6.1 Extraction using supercritical fluids
		6.2 Gasification
	7. The future
	References
15 - In situ retorting
	1. Introduction
	2. Principles
	3. Processes
		3.1 American Shale Oil process
		3.2 Chevron process
		3.3 DOW process
		3.4 Equity Oil/Arco process
		3.5 Exxon/Mobil Electrofrac process
		3.6 Geokinetics process
		3.7 Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute process
		3.8 Occidental Modified In-Situ process
		3.9 Petroprobe process
		3.10 Rio Blanco Oil Shale process
		3.11 Schlumberger/Raytheon-CF radio-frequency technology
		3.12 Shell In Situ Conversion process
		3.13 Vertical Modified In-Situ process
		3.14 Other options
	4. The future
	References
16 - Refining shale oil
	1. Introduction
	2. Shale oil properties
		2.1 Hydrocarbons
		2.2 Nitrogen-containing compounds
		2.3 Oxygen-containing compounds
		2.4 Sulfur compounds
	3. Shale oil upgrading
		3.1 Visbreaking
		3.2 Coking
		3.3 Hydrotreating
		3.4 Upgrading at the mine site
		3.5 Use of additives
	4. The future
		4.1 Processing options
		4.2 Constraints
			4.2.1 Suspended solids
			4.2.2 Oil and grease
			4.2.3 Dissolved inorganics
			4.2.4 Dissolved organics and trace organics
			4.2.5 Toxics
			4.2.6 Other constraints
	5. Chemicals from shale oil
	References
III: Other aspects
17 - Instability and incompatibility of tight oil and shale oil
	1. Introduction
	2. Composition of tight oil and shale oil
		2.1 Tight oil
		2.2 Shale oil
	3. Instability and incompatibility
	4. Factors influencing instability and incompatibility
		4.1 Acidity
		4.2 Asphaltene content
		4.3 Composition
		4.4 Density and specific gravity
		4.5 Elemental analysis
		4.6 Filterable solids
		4.7 Metals content
		4.8 Pour point
		4.9 Viscosity
		4.10 Volatility
		4.11 Water content, salt content, and bottom sediment/water
		4.12 Wax deposition
	5. Methods for determining instability and incompatibility
	References
18 - Environmental aspects
	1. Introduction
		1.1 Environmental regulations
		1.2 General aspects
		1.3 New regulations
	2. Environmental impact – gas and oil from tight formations
		2.1 Air pollution
		2.2 Water pollution
			2.2.1 Water consumption
			2.2.2 Water quality
			2.2.3 Water treatment
			2.2.4 Water recycling
			2.2.5 Water disposal
		2.3 Land pollution
			2.3.1 Fluids management
			2.3.2 Induced seismic activity
			2.3.3 Aquifer protection
	3. Environmental impact – oil shale
		3.1 Air pollution
			3.1.1 Dust emissions and particulate matter
			3.1.2 Mine waste disposal
			3.1.3 Hazardous air pollutants
		3.2 Water pollution
			3.2.1 Water quality
			3.2.2 Water requirements
		3.3 Land pollution
			3.3.1 Subsidence
			3.3.2 Noise, vibration, and visibility
			3.3.3 Reclamation
		3.4 Production of shale oil
	4. Remediation requirements
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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