Seven Ideas That Shook the Universe

Cover
......Page 1
Copyright page
......Page 6
Preface
to Revised Edition
......Page 7
Preface
......Page 9
Contents
......Page 11
1  Introduction
......Page 15
2.  Physics, the Most Fundamental Science
......Page 16
1.  Matter and Motion, and Their Interplay
......Page 17
1.  The Tentative Nature of Scientific Knowledge
......Page 18
3.  Energy Drives the Mechanism—the Energy Concept
......Page 19
6.  You Can't Predict or Know Everything—Quantum Theory and the Limits of Causality
......Page 20
3.  The Symphonic Analogy
......Page 21
1.  The Nonmathematical Reader
......Page 22
2.  Minimization of Formal Mathematics
......Page 23
4.  Michael Faraday
......Page 24
1.  Science and Culture
......Page 25
3.  Science and Technology
......Page 26
5.  Science and Religion
......Page 27
7.  Scientific Method
......Page 28
8.  Enjoying the Symphony
......Page 29
References
......Page 30
2  Copernican Astronomy
......Page 33
1.  Origins of Western Science in Eastern Mediterranean Cultures
......Page 34
2.  Greek Science and Numerology
......Page 35
1.  Appearance of the Heavens
......Page 39
2.  Competing Models of the Universe
......Page 42
3.  Aristotle's Conception of the Universe
......Page 43
4.  Ptolemy's Refined Geocentric Model
......Page 44
1.  Historical Background
......Page 48
2.  Simple Copernican Theory
......Page 49
4.  Reception of the Copernican Theory
......Page 51
2.1  Calculation of Earth's Orbital Speed
......Page 53
3.  Tycho Brahe's Theory
......Page 55
1.  Transient Phenomena in the Heavens
......Page 56
4.  Dialogues Concerning the Two Chief World Systems......Page 57
1.  Pythagorean Mysticism
......Page 58
2.  Kepler's Mathematical Analysis of Tycho Brahe's Data
......Page 61
3.  Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
......Page 62
2.2  Kepler's Laws and Satellite Orbits
......Page 64
2.3  Accepted Astronomical Dimensions Prior to the Telescope
......Page 65
5.  The Course of Scientific Revolutions
......Page 67
Study Questions
......Page 68
Problems
......Page 69
References
......Page 70
3  Newtonian Mechanics and Causality
......Page 73
2.  Prime Substances
......Page 74
3.  Motion According to Aristotle
......Page 75
4.  Significance of Aristotelian Physics
......Page 77
5.  Criticisms and Commentaries on Aristotle's Physics
......Page 78
1.  Graphical Representations of Motion
......Page 79
2.  Falling Bodies
......Page 85
3.1  Motion of Falling Bodies
......Page 89
3.  Projectile Motion
......Page 90
1.  Inductive and Deductive Logic
......Page 93
2.  Value and Use of Mathematics in Science
......Page 94
3.  Analytical Geometry
......Page 95
3.2  The Formulae for a Line, a Circle, and an Ellipse
......Page 97
4.  Calculus
......Page 99
5.  Vectors
......Page 100
D.  Newtonian Mechanics
......Page 101
1.  Historical Background
......Page 102
2.  The Principia Mathematica
......Page 103
First Law of Motion—Law of Inertia
......Page 104
Second Law of Motion—Law of Acceleration
......Page 105
3.4  Examples of Newton's Second Law of Motion
......Page 106
Third Law of Motion—Law of Action and Reaction
......Page 107
2.2  Law of Conservation of Momentum
......Page 108
3.5  Conservation of Momentum
......Page 109
3.  The Universal Law of Gravitation
......Page 110
3.6  The Universal Law of Gravitation
......Page 112
3.7  The Acceleration of Gravity
......Page 114
4.  Tests and Criticisms
......Page 115
1.  The Mechanical Universe
......Page 117
2.  The Rational Universe
......Page 118
Study Questions
......Page 119
Problems
......Page 121
References
......Page 122
4  The Energy Concept
......Page 125
1.  Collisions
......Page 126
2.  Significance of Kinetic Energy—Work
......Page 128
3.  Conservative Mechanical Systems
......Page 129
4.1  Work and Mechanical Energy
......Page 131
1.  Heat as a Fluid
......Page 133
4.2  Heat Capacity and Latent Heat
......Page 140
2.  The Kinetic-Molecular Model of Matter and the Microscopic Explanation of Heat
......Page 141
1.  Precursors, Early Forms
......Page 144
2.  The Forms of Energy
......Page 147
4.  What Is Energy?
......Page 148
4.3  The First Law of Thermodynamics
......Page 150
Appendix: Molecular Pressure and Speeds
......Page 152
Study Questions
......Page 154
Problems
......Page 155
References
......Page 156
5  Entropy and Probability
......Page 159
1.  Energy as a Parameter of a System
......Page 160
3.  Statistical Nature of Entropy
......Page 161
2.1  Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
......Page 162
2.2  Temperature and Equations of State
......Page 163
5.1  Temperature Scales
......Page 165
5.2  Significance of General Gas Law
......Page 166
C.  The Natural Flow of Heat
......Page 168
1.  Heat and Motion
......Page 169
5.3  The Reversible Heat Engine
......Page 170
3.  Alternative Forms of Second Law of Thermodynamics
......Page 173
4.  Perpetual Motion of the Second Kind
......Page 175
2.  Carnot or Thermodynamic Efficiency
......Page 176
2.  Adiabatic performance of work by the engine
......Page 177
3.  Isothermal heat discharge
......Page 178
3.  Possibilities for Improving Heat Engine Efficiencies
......Page 179
F.  The Thermodynamic or Absolute Temperature Scale
......Page 181
G.  The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 182
H.  Energy Degradation and Unavailability
......Page 183
1.  Changes in Entropy
......Page 184
2.  Another Form of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
......Page 185
J.  Entropy Increase and Irreversibility
......Page 186
K.  Entropy As a Parameter of a System
......Page 187
2.  Energy Distribution among the Molecules
......Page 188
3.  The Equilibrium Distribution
......Page 189
4.  Entropy and Probability
......Page 191
1.  Order and Probability
......Page 192
2.  Maxwell's Demon
......Page 193
2.  The Universe as a Closed System
......Page 194
3.  Philosophical Implications and Criticisms of the "Heat Death"
......Page 195
3.  Specification of a Heat Engine
......Page 196
B.  Perfect Gas Heat Engine: The Helium Gas Engine
......Page 198
2.  Adiabatic Decrease of Temperature
......Page 200
5.  Net Work Output: Efficiency of the Carnot Cycle
......Page 201
1.  Carnot Cycle for a Steam Engine
......Page 202
3.  Actual Steam Engine Cycles
......Page 203
E.  Other Engine Cycles
......Page 204
Study Questions
......Page 205
Problems
......Page 206
References
......Page 207
6  Electromagnetism and Relativity
......Page 209
1.  Absolute Space and Time According to Newton
......Page 210
2.  Frames of Reference
......Page 211
B.  Electromagnetism and Relative Motion
......Page 214
1.  Electric Charges and Electrical Fields
......Page 215
2.  Electric Charges in Motion
......Page 218
6.1  Conversion of Electrical Energy to Heat: Current, Voltage, and Power
......Page 219
6.2  Free Electron Model of Electrical Conduction
......Page 221
6.3  Interconversion of Electrical and Mechanical Energy
......Page 224
3.  Electrical and Magnetic Interactions
......Page 225
4.  Electromagnetic Theory of Radiation; Light
......Page 228
6.4  Wavelengths and Antennas
......Page 231
6.  Properties of the Imponderable Ether
......Page 232
1.  Star Aberration
......Page 233
2.  Michelson-Morley Ether Drift Experiments
......Page 235
4.  Failure of All Ether Experiments
......Page 237
1.  Precursors
......Page 238
2.  Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
......Page 240
3.  Special Principles of Relativity
......Page 241
4.  New Concepts of Space and Time
......Page 242
6.5  Calculation of γ
......Page 247
5.  The Maximum Speed Limit
......Page 250
6.  Twin Paradox and Space Travel; Minkowski Diagrams
......Page 252
E.  General Theory of Relativity
......Page 255
1.  The Equivalence Postulate
......Page 256
2.  Curved Space and Non-Euclidean Geometry
......Page 259
3.  Experimental Tests of General Relativity
......Page 260
4.  Cosmological Consequences
......Page 262
6.6  The Size of Black Holes
......Page 264
F.  Influence of Relativity Theory on Philosophy, Literature, and Art
......Page 266
Study Questions
......Page 267
Problems
......Page 269
References
......Page 270
7  Quantum Theory and the End of Causality
......Page 273
1.  Physical Theories, Common Sense, and Extreme Conditions
......Page 274
2.  Relationship of Quantum Theory to Other Theories
......Page 275
3.  Historical Origin and Content of Quantum Theory
......Page 276
1.  Temperature and Radiation from Hot Bodies
......Page 277
2.  Analysis of the Cavity Radiator
......Page 279
3.  Planck's Analysis of the Problem.
......Page 280
1.  The Nature of the Photoelectric Effect
......Page 283
2.  Qualitative Explanation by Classical Electromagnetic Theory
......Page 284
3.  Einstein's "Heuristic" Explanation
......Page 285
4.  Implications of the Photon Hypothesis
......Page 286
7.1  Conflicting Theories of the Nature of Light
......Page 288
1.  Early Concepts of Atomism
......Page 290
2.  Electrical Nature of Matter; Rutherford's Planetary Atom
......Page 291
3.  Bohr's Improved Planetary Atom
......Page 293
7.2  Energy Level Diagrams
......Page 296
7.3  Bohr Theory and the Periodic Table
......Page 298
4.  De Broglie's Wave Hypothesis
......Page 301
2.  Schroedinger Wave Theory
......Page 303
3.  The Meaning and Interpretation of Schroedinger Waves
......Page 306
4.  Success of the Schroedinger Theory
......Page 308
5.  Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
......Page 312
1.  Models as Analogs or Synthesizing Constructs
......Page 316
2.  The Reality of Models
......Page 317
7.4  Quantum Electrodynamics
......Page 318
G.  The Impact of Quantum Theory on Philosophy and Literature
......Page 322
Study Questions
......Page 325
Problems
......Page 326
References
......Page 327
8  Conservation Principles and Symmetries
......Page 329
A.  Introduction
......Page 330
B.  The Nuclear Force and Nuclear Structure
......Page 331
8.1  Nuclear Reactions and Energy Levels
......Page 333
8.2  Radioactivity and Half-Life
......Page 335
C.  Conservation Laws and Invariants
......Page 340
D.  Conservation Laws and Symmetries
......Page 342
E.  The Quark Model
......Page 344
F.  Summary of Present Knowledge
......Page 350
Study Questions
......Page 353
References
......Page 354
9  Epilogue
......Page 357
A
......Page 361
D
......Page 362
F
......Page 363
I
......Page 364
M
......Page 365
P
......Page 366
S
......Page 367
W
......Page 368
Z
......Page 369