Semiconductor Detector Systems (Semiconductor Science and Technology)

0198527845......Page 1
Contents......Page 10
1 Detector systems overview......Page 18
1.1 Sensor......Page 19
1.3 Pulse shaper......Page 20
1.4 Digitizer......Page 22
1.5 Electro–mechanical integration......Page 23
1.6.1 Basic sensor......Page 25
1.6.2 Position sensing......Page 26
1.6.3 Pixel devices......Page 28
1.7.1 Signal charge......Page 29
1.7.2 Sensor volume......Page 30
1.7.3 Charge collection......Page 33
1.7.5 Position resolution......Page 36
1.8.1 Charge coupled devices......Page 41
1.8.2 Silicon drift chambers......Page 42
1.8.3 Monolithic active pixel sensors......Page 43
1.10 Detection limits and resolution......Page 46
1.10.1 Electronic noise......Page 48
1.10.2 Amplitude measurements......Page 50
1.10.3 Timing measurements......Page 52
1.11.1 Circuit integration and bussing......Page 53
1.11.2 Detector modules, services, and supports......Page 55
References......Page 57
2.1 The signal......Page 60
2.2.1 Low energy quanta (E≈E[sub(g)])......Page 65
2.2.2 High energy quanta (E»E[sub(g)])......Page 68
2.2.3 Fluctuations in signal charge – the Fano factor......Page 69
2.3.1 Formation of a high-field region......Page 72
2.3.2 Doping......Page 73
2.3.3 The pn-junction......Page 76
2.3.4 The reverse-biased diode......Page 78
2.3.5 Strip and pixel detectors......Page 83
2.4 Charge collection......Page 84
2.5 Time dependence of the signal current......Page 88
2.5.1 Induced charge – Ramo's theorem......Page 90
2.5.2 Parallel plate geometry with uniform field......Page 92
2.5.3 Double-sided strip detector......Page 95
2.6 Charge collection in the presence of trapping......Page 99
2.7 Semiconductor detector materials......Page 100
2.8 Photodiodes......Page 103
2.9.2 Current-sensitive amplifier......Page 108
2.9.3 Voltage and current mode with capacitive sources......Page 109
2.9.4 Feedback amplifiers – the "charge-sensitive amplifier"......Page 110
2.9.5 Realistic charge-sensitive amplifiers......Page 112
2.9.6 Input impedance of a charge-sensitive amplifier......Page 117
References......Page 119
3.1 Electronic noise and resolution......Page 122
3.3 Some general properties of noise......Page 124
3.3.3 Low frequency ("1/f") noise......Page 126
3.4.1 Spectral density of thermal noise......Page 127
3.4.2 Spectral density of shot noise......Page 128
3.4.3 Spectral density of low-frequency noise......Page 130
3.5.3 Radiation resistance of an antenna......Page 131
3.6 Correlated noise......Page 132
3.7.2 Equivalent noise charge......Page 133
3.8.1 Amplifier noise model......Page 134
3.8.2 Noise bandwidth vs. signal bandwidth......Page 137
3.9.1 Resistive sources......Page 138
3.9.2 Noise matching with a transformer......Page 139
3.10.1 Noise vs. capacitance in a charge-sensitive amplifier......Page 140
3.10.2 S/N vs. input time constant......Page 142
3.11 Complex sensors......Page 144
3.11.1 Cross-coupled noise......Page 146
3.11.2 Backside readout......Page 148
3.12 Quantum noise limits in amplifiers......Page 149
References......Page 150
4.1 Simple pulse shapers......Page 151
4.1.1 Effect of relative time constants......Page 152
4.2 Evaluation of equivalent noise charge......Page 155
4.2.1 Experiment......Page 156
4.2.3 Analytical simulation......Page 158
4.3 Noise analysis of a detector and front-end amplifier......Page 159
4.3.1 Detector bias current......Page 160
4.3.2 Parallel resistance......Page 161
4.3.5 Cumulative input noise voltage......Page 162
4.3.6 Equivalent noise charge......Page 163
4.4.1 Photodiode readout......Page 165
4.4.2 High-rate x-ray spectroscopy......Page 168
4.5 Noise analysis in the time domain......Page 170
4.5.1 Principles of noise analysis in the time domain......Page 171
4.5.2 The weighting function......Page 173
4.5.3 Time-variant shapers......Page 175
4.5.4 Noise analysis of a correlated-double sample pulse shaper......Page 177
4.6 Detector noise summary......Page 183
4.7 Threshold discriminator systems......Page 186
4.7.1 Noise rate......Page 188
4.7.2 Noise occupancy......Page 190
4.7.3 Measurement of noise in a threshold discriminator system......Page 191
4.8.1 Baseline restoration......Page 192
4.8.2 Tail (pole–zero) cancellation......Page 194
4.8.3 Bipolar vs. unipolar shaping......Page 195
4.9 Timing measurements......Page 196
4.9.1 Pulse shaping in timing systems......Page 197
4.9.2 Choice of rise time in a timing system......Page 198
4.9.3 Time walk......Page 199
4.9.4 Lowest practical threshold in leading edge triggering......Page 200
4.9.5 Zero-crossing timing......Page 201
4.9.6 Constant fraction timing......Page 202
4.9.7 Fast timing – some results......Page 204
References......Page 206
5.1.1 Logic elements......Page 208
5.1.2 Propagation delays and power dissipation......Page 211
5.1.3 Logic arrays......Page 212
5.2 Digitization of pulse height and time......Page 213
5.2.1 ADC parameters......Page 214
5.2.2 Analog-to-digital conversion techniques......Page 220
5.3.3 Digitizers with clock interpolation......Page 226
5.4 Digital signal processing......Page 227
References......Page 233
6.1 Bipolar transistors......Page 234
6.1.1 Bipolar transistors in amplifiers......Page 239
6.2 Field effect transistors......Page 246
6.2.1 Junction field effect transistors......Page 247
6.2.2 Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors......Page 253
6.2.3 MOSFET types......Page 258
6.2.4 MOS Transistors in Amplifiers......Page 259
6.3.1 Noise in field effect transistors......Page 260
6.3.3 Noise in bipolar transistors......Page 265
6.3.4 Comparison between bipolar and field effect transistors......Page 268
6.3.5 Noise optimization – capacitive matching revisited......Page 269
6.4 Composite amplifiers......Page 273
6.5 Overall noise of a detector module......Page 282
6.6 Optimization for low power......Page 283
6.6.1 Optimum operating current......Page 284
6.6.2 Technology improvements......Page 288
6.7 Power dissipation of an active pixel array vs. strip readout......Page 291
References......Page 292
7 Radiation effects......Page 294
7.1 Radiation damage mechanisms......Page 295
7.1.1 Displacement damage......Page 296
7.1.2 Ionization damage......Page 299
7.2 Radiation damage in diodes......Page 300
7.2.1 Contributions to N[sub(eff)]......Page 303
7.2.2 Trapping......Page 306
7.3.1 Bipolar transistors......Page 309
7.3.2 Junction field effect transistors (JFETs)......Page 312
7.3.3 Metal-oxide-silicon field effect transistors (MOSFETs)......Page 313
7.3.4 Radiation effects in integrated circuit structures......Page 319
7.4 Dosimetry......Page 320
7.5.1 Detectors......Page 321
7.5.2 Electronics......Page 323
References......Page 326
8.1 Conflicts and compromises......Page 332
8.2.3 Event rate......Page 333
8.2.6 Cost......Page 334
8.3 Segmentation......Page 335
8.4.1 Layout and detector geometry......Page 336
8.4.2 Electronics......Page 340
8.4.3 "Common mode noise"......Page 343
8.4.4 Noise limits in long strip detectors......Page 344
8.4.5 CCD detectors at e[sup(+)]e[sup(-)] colliders......Page 347
8.5.1 CDF and DØ......Page 354
8.6 Silicon trackers at the Large Hadron Collider......Page 359
8.6.1 Coping with high rates......Page 360
8.6.2 Radiation damage......Page 361
8.6.3 Layout......Page 362
8.6.4 Readout electronics......Page 365
8.6.5 Detector modules......Page 370
8.6.7 ATLAS pixel detector......Page 374
8.7.1 CMOS imagers......Page 380
8.7.2 DEPFET pixel detectors......Page 381
8.8 Astronomical imaging......Page 383
8.9.1 Space applications......Page 384
8.9.2 X-ray imaging and spectroscopy......Page 386
8.10.1 Design......Page 389
8.10.2 Assembly......Page 391
8.10.3 Testing......Page 392
8.11 Summary......Page 394
References......Page 395
9.1 Reflections on transmission lines......Page 403
9.2.2 Light pickup......Page 406
9.2.3 Microphonics......Page 407
9.2.4 RF pickup......Page 408
9.3.1 Shielding......Page 409
9.3.2 "Field line pinning"......Page 411
9.3.3 "Self-shielding" structures......Page 412
9.3.4 Inductive coupling......Page 413
9.3.6 Shielding summary......Page 414
9.4.1 Shared current paths ("ground loops")......Page 415
9.4.2 Remedial techniques......Page 417
9.4.3 Potential distribution on gound planes......Page 420
9.5 Breaking parasitic current paths......Page 422
9.5.2 Differential signal transmission......Page 423
9.5.3 Blocking Common Mode Currents......Page 425
9.5.4 Isolating parasitic ground connections by series resistors......Page 426
9.5.5 Directing the current flow away from sensitive nodes......Page 427
9.5.6 The folded cascode......Page 429
9.6 Capacitors......Page 431
9.7.1 Choice of shaper......Page 432
9.7.2 Local referencing......Page 433
A.1 Bulk material......Page 435
A.2 Introduction of dopants......Page 436
A.3 Deposition......Page 437
A.4 Patterning......Page 438
A.6 Detector fabrication......Page 439
A.7 Detector process flow......Page 440
A.8 Strip detector structures......Page 443
A.9 CMOS devices......Page 445
References......Page 446
B: Phasors and complex algebra in electrical circuits......Page 449
C: Equivalent circuits......Page 451
D.1 Gain of a feedback amplifier......Page 455
D.3 Bandwidth......Page 456
D.5 Input and output impedance......Page 457
D.5.2 Shunt feedback......Page 458
D.5.3 Output impedance......Page 459
D.6 Loop gain......Page 460
D.7 Stability......Page 461
References......Page 463
E.1 Carrier concentrations in pure semiconductors......Page 464
E.2 Carrier concentrations in doped crystals......Page 467
E.3 pn-junctions......Page 468
E.4 The forward-biased pn-junction......Page 470
References......Page 475
F.1 Emission and capture processes......Page 476
F.1.3 Hole capture and emission......Page 477
F.1.4 Emission probabilities......Page 478
F.2.1 Band-to-band recombination......Page 479
F.2.2 Recombination via intermediate states......Page 480
F.3.1 Generation in the depletion region......Page 482
F.3.2 Generation in the neutral region......Page 483
F.4 The origin of recombination and generation centers......Page 484
F.5.1 Reverse Current......Page 485
F.5.3 Comments......Page 487
References......Page 488
G: Bipolar transistor equations......Page 489
References......Page 494
A......Page 495
C......Page 496
D......Page 497
G......Page 499
L......Page 500
N......Page 501
O......Page 502
P......Page 503
R......Page 504
S......Page 505
Z......Page 506