Sea Salt Aerosol Production: Mechanisms, Methods, Measurements and Models - A Critical Review

Title Page
......Page 3
Copyright
......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 5
Preface......Page 9
1.1. SEA SALT AEROSOL AND ITS IMPORTANCE......Page 13
1.3. SCOPE OF THIS WORK......Page 17
2.1. DESCRIPTION OF SEA SALT AEROSOL PARTICLE SIZES, CONCENTRATIONS, AND FLUXES......Page 20
2.1.1. Description of SSA Particle Sizes......Page 21
2.1.2. Specification of SSA Particle Size Ranges......Page 22
2.1.3. Description of Size Distributions......Page 24
2.1.4. Description of Concentrations......Page 25
2.1.5. Concentrations of SSAP roperties......Page 29
2.1.6. Description of Fluxes......Page 41
2.1.7. Fluxes of SSA Properties......Page 44
2.2 MAJOR SSA PRODUCTION MECHANISMS......Page 46
2.3.1. Wind Speed......Page 48
2.3.2. Atmospheric Stability and Wind Friction Velocity......Page 50
2.3.3. Rainfall......Page 51
2.3.4. Surface-Active Materials......Page 52
2.3.5. Other Factors......Page 53
2.4. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE OVER THE OCEAN......Page 55
2.5. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER AND SSA PARTICLES......Page 58
2.5.1. Composition and Properties of Seawater......Page 59
2.5.2. Composition of SSA Particles......Page 61
2.5.3. Equilibrium Drop Behavior With Relative Humidity......Page 64
2.5.4. Non-Equilibrium Drop Behavior With Relative Humidity......Page 67
2.5.5. Efflorescence and Deliquescence of SSAP articles......Page 71
2.6.1. Mechanisms Controlling SSA Particle Motion......Page 74
2.6.2. Stokesian Behavior......Page 76
2.6.3. Ultra-Stokesian Behavior......Page 78
2.7.1. Wet Deposition......Page 82
2.7.2. Dry Deposition......Page 83
2.8. TRANSPORT OF SSA IN THE MARINE BOUNDARY LAYER......Page 88
2.8.2. DecompositionIn to Mean and Fluctuating Components......Page 89
2.9. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SSA PARTICLES......Page 93
2.9.1. Equilibration With Respect to Relative Humidity......Page 94
2.9.2. Upward Entrainment of SSA Particles From Near the Sea Surface......Page 96
2.9.3. Steady State Vertical SSA Concentration Profile in the Surface Layer......Page 97
2.9.4. Height Dependence of SSA Concentration in the Lowest Portion of the Marine Boundary Layer......Page 99
2.9.5. Vertical Mixing of SSA Particles......Page 101
2.9.6. Temporal Development of SSA Concentration......Page 104
2.9.7. Summary......Page 109
3.1. STEADY STATE DRY DEPOSITION METHOD......Page 111
3.1.1.1. Entrainment condition.......Page 112
3.1.1.2. Stationarityc ondition......Page 113
3.1.1.3. Horizontal homogeneityc ondition......Page 114
3.2. WHITECAP METHOD......Page 115
3.3. CONCENTRATION BUILDUP METHOD......Page 117
3.4. BUBBLE METHOD......Page 119
3.5. MICROMETEOROLOGICAL METHODS......Page 120
3.5.2. Eddy Accumulation......Page 121
3.5.5. Concernsw ith MicrometeorologicaMl easurements......Page 122
3.6. ALONG-WIND FLUX METHOD......Page 123
3.8. VERTICAL IMPACTION METHOD......Page 126
3.10. SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR FLUX DETERMINATION......Page 127
4. Measurementsa nd Models of Quantities Requiredt o EvaluateSea Salt Aerosol Production Fluxes......Page 129
4.1.1. General Considerations......Page 130
4.1.1.1. Relative abundance of SSA particles comparedto other marine aerosol particles.......Page 131
4.1.1.2. Measurement concerns......Page 135
4.1.1.3. Considerations regarding interpretation of SSAconcentration measuremen......Page 136
4.1.2.1. Measurements......Page 138
4.1.2.2. Parameterizations......Page 147
4.1.2.3. Global maps......Page 149
4.1.3. Sea Salt Aerosol Number Concentration......Page 150
4.1.3.2. Dependence on wind speed......Page 151
4.1.3.4. Implicationsf or climatec hange......Page 159
4.1.4. Sea Salt Aerosol Concentration Size Distributions......Page 160
4.1.4.1. Determinationo f size distributionso f SSAc oncentration......Page 161
4.1.4.2. Measurements.......Page 165
4.1.4.3. Features of size distributions of SSA concentration......Page 179
4.1.4.4. Parameterizations......Page 182
4.1.4.5. Implications......Page 189
4.2. NEAR-SURFACE FIELD MEASUREMENTSPERTINENT TO SSA PRODUCTION......Page 193
4.3.1. Drops from Bursting Bubbles......Page 197
4.3.2. Jet Drops......Page 199
4.3.2.1. Number of jet drops produced by a burstingbubble......Page 200
4.3.2.2. Sizes of jet drops......Page 202
4.3.2.3. Ejection heights of jet drops......Page 205
4.3.2.4. Implications for jet drop production and entrainmentover the oceans......Page 211
4.3.3.1. Sizes and ejection heights of film drops......Page 212
4.3.3.2. Number of film drops produced by a burstingbubble......Page 215
4.3.3.3. Factors affecting film drop production fromindividualb ubbles.......Page 218
4.3.4. Investigationsw ith Laboratory Whitecaps......Page 220
4.3.4.1. Sea salt aerosol production from continuouslaboratory whitecaps......Page 221
4.3.4.2. Sea salt aerosolp roductionfr om discretel aboratorywhitecap......Page 224
4.3.4.3. Factors affectingS SAp roductionfr om laboratorywhitecaps.......Page 227
4.3.4.4. Considerations regarding interpretation ofmeasurementosf SSAp roductionfr om laboratoryw hitecaps......Page 229
4.3.5. Sea Salt AerosolP roductionE stimatedf rom SurfZone Production......Page 232
4.3.6. Investigations with Wind/Wave Tunnels......Page 233
4.3.6.1. Sea salt aerosol production in wind/wave tunnels......Page 237
4.3.6.2. Considerations regarding interpretation ofwind/wave tunnel experiments.......Page 240
4.3.7. Summary of Drop Production......Page 242
4.4. BUBBLES IN THE OCEANS......Page 245
4.4.1.1. Measurement methods......Page 248
4.4.1.2. Measurement......Page 249
4.4.1.3. Parameterizations......Page 256
4.4.1.4. Laboratory studies of bubble production andconcentration......Page 257
4.4.2.1. Kinematics......Page 260
4.4.2.2. Time-evolution......Page 264
4.5. OCEANIC WHITECAPS......Page 266
4.5.1. Measurements......Page 267
4.5.2. Dependence on Wind Speed......Page 270
4.5.3.1. Seawater temperature......Page 276
4.5.3.3. Windf riction velocity......Page 279
4.5.3.5. Fetch.......Page 280
4.5.3.8. Summary......Page 281
4.5.4. Properties of Individual Whitecaps......Page 282
4.6. DRY DEPOSITION......Page 283
4.6.1. Dry Deposition Formulation of Slinn and Slinn......Page 284
4.6.2. Size-Dependent Dry Deposition Velocitiesand Their Implications
......Page 285
4.6.3. Alternative Formulations and Models......Page 287
4.6.4. Dry Deposition Measurements......Page 293
4.6.5. ConsiderationsR egardingI nterpretationo fDry Deposition Models......Page 296
4.7.1. Coastal SSA Production......Page 299
4.7.2. Impaction of Drops on the Ocean Surface......Page 300
4.7.3. Miscellaneous Mechanisms......Page 303
4.7. 4. Fracture of Dry Sea Salt Particles......Page 304
4.7.5. Summary......Page 307
5.1.1. Uncertainties in Estimates of SSA Production Fluxes......Page 308
5.1.2. Relation Between Interfacial and Effective SSAProduction Fluxes......Page 310
5.1.3. Factors Affecting SSA Production......Page 311
5.2.1.1. Early estimates......Page 312
5.2.1.2. Estimates of Toba and coworkers......Page 315
5.2.1.3. Estimates of Fairall and coworkers......Page 316
5.2.1.4. Estimateso f ?mith and coworkers......Page 318
5.2.2. Discussion......Page 321
5.3. WHITECAP METHOD......Page 323
5.3.1. Estimates of the Interfacial SSA Production Flux......Page 324
5.3.2. Discussion......Page 325
5.4. CONCENTRATION BUILDUP METHOD......Page 329
5.5. BUBBLE METHOD......Page 331
5.5.1. Estimates of the htterfacial SSA Production Flux......Page 332
5.5.1.2. Estimates based on measurementso f Ciprianoand Blanchard.......Page 333
5.5.1.3. Estimate of Wu......Page 334
5.5.1.4. Estimate based on measured size distributions ofbubble concentration.......Page 336
5.5.2. Discussion......Page 337
5.6. MICROMETEOROLOGICAL METHODS......Page 338
5. 7.1. Estimates of the Interfacial SSA Production......Page 341
5. 7. 2. Discussion......Page 344
5.8. DIRECT OBSERVATION METHOD......Page 346
5.10. STATISTICAL WET DEPOSITION METHOD......Page 347
5.11.1. Effective SSA Production Flux......Page 348
5.11.2. Interfacial SSA Production Flux......Page 350
5.11.3. Summary......Page 352
6.1. THE CLIMATE CONNECTION......Page 354
6.2. REPRESENTATION OF SSA PRODUCTIONFLUX IN CHEMICAL TRANSPORT MODELS......Page 355
6.3. STATUS AND PROSPECT......Page 358
Principal Symbols......Page 361
List of Figures......Page 365
List of Tables......Page 366
References......Page 367
Index......Page 417
About the Authors......Page 421