Scientific Method for Ecological Research

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 17
Acknowledgements......Page 20
SECTION IV......Page 23
1.1 Questions about the process of scientific research......Page 24
METHODOLOGY......Page 26
1.3 Distinction between progress and process in scientific research......Page 27
1.4 Section I: Developing an analytical framework......Page 28
1.5 Section II: Making a synthesis for scientific inference......Page 30
1.6 Section III: Working in the research community......Page 31
1.7 Section IV: Defining a methodology for ecological research......Page 32
1.9 How to use this book to develop your research skills......Page 33
1.10 Further reading......Page 35
Introduction to Section I: Developing an analytical framework......Page 37
2. Whole theories evolve as investigations proceed......Page 38
5.Measurement is essential in science, but there may be no absolute measurement of an ecological quantity or condition......Page 39
7. Different ecologists have different philosophies about what should be studied and how to study it......Page 40
Summary......Page 41
2.1 Introduction......Page 42
2.2.1 Origins and types of research questions......Page 43
1. Interest in observed natural phenomena......Page 44
3. Resolution of a discrepancy between theory and observation......Page 45
2.2.2 Analysis of questions......Page 46
A.Transforming assumptions and questions into propositions......Page 47
C. Ordering propositions into those supported by the literature or direct observation, the axioms, and those that must be…......Page 48
2.3 Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new research ideas......Page 50
2.4 Process 3: Ensuring the proposed research has relevance to prior scientific knowledge......Page 51
2. Reading a scientific paper for method rather than content......Page 52
3. Appreciating the tension between general theory and on-the-ground research......Page 53
2.5 Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with available resources......Page 54
2.6 Process 5: Determining how conclusions can be drawn......Page 55
2.6.1 Developing a data statement: An example......Page 56
Data statement: Part Three......Page 57
2.6.2 Using statistics to illuminate the problem, not support a position......Page 60
2.7 Further reading......Page 62
3.1 Introduction......Page 63
3.2 Constituents and properties of theories......Page 64
THEORY......Page 65
CONCEPT......Page 68
AXIOM......Page 70
POSTULATE......Page 71
LAW......Page 72
UNCODIFIED KNOWLEDGE......Page 74
A data statement......Page 75
HYPOTHESIS......Page 76
3.3 Conceptual and propositional analysis......Page 78
3.3.1 Phase One: Identifying the principal issues......Page 79
3.3.2 Phase Two: Classifying concepts according to their status in the proggress of research......Page 80
CONCEPT FROM RESEARCH......Page 81
CONCEPT BY IMAGINATION......Page 83
CONCEPT BY MEASUREMENT......Page 84
CONCEPT BY INTUITION......Page 86
3.4 Representing theories as networks......Page 87
3.5 What can be gained from a conceptual and propositional analysis?......Page 89
3.5.2 Understanding logical relationships between different pieces of knowledge......Page 91
3.5.4 Knowing when to start practical investigation......Page 92
3.7 Further reading......Page 93
4.1 Introduction......Page 95
4.2.1 The first description......Page 96
HOLDING CONCEPT......Page 98
4.2.3 First definitions......Page 99
4.2.4 First consideration of Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with…......Page 100
4.2.5 First consideration of Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new research ideas......Page 101
4.2.6 Continuation of Process 1: Defining a research question......Page 102
4.3 Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with available resources......Page 107
4.4 Process 3: Ensuring the proposed research has relevance to prior scientific knowledge......Page 115
4.5 Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new research ideas......Page 116
4.6 Process 5: Determining how conclusions can be drawn......Page 117
Data statement: Part Two......Page 118
Data statement: Part Three......Page 119
Scientific inference......Page 120
4.7 Steel’s comments on the planning process after completing her Master’s thesis......Page 123
4.8 Further reading......Page 124
5.1 Introduction......Page 125
1. Theories contain generalizations......Page 126
2. Theories contain questions......Page 127
3. Theories change continuously......Page 128
5.2.1 Stage 1: Rejecting a simple postulate......Page 130
5.2.2 Stage 2: Exploring for spatial and temporal changes......Page 133
Axioms of species environmental preferences......Page 135
5.2.4 Stage 4: Increasing the precision of the theory......Page 136
5.2.5 Stage 5: Working towards explanations that are coherent with meteorological theories......Page 137
5.2.6 Assessment of theory development......Page 138
5.3 Practical application of a theory: Hybridization in fish species......Page 140
5.4 Development, properties, and use of ecological theories......Page 149
REGRESSIVE THEORY DEVELOPMENT......Page 150
5.5 Further reading......Page 151
6.1 Introduction......Page 153
6.2 Principles of measurement for new concepts......Page 155
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT FOR NEW CONCEPTS......Page 157
EXPERIMENT......Page 158
OPEN SYSTEM......Page 159
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS......Page 160
RESPONSE-LEVEL EXPERIMENT......Page 161
6.4.1 Results from an improved measurement technique......Page 164
6.4.2 Observing an anomaly......Page 165
6.4.3 Making a conceptual analysis of the problem......Page 168
6.4.4 Constructing multiple postulates......Page 171
6.4.5 Choosing a postulate to study......Page 174
FALSIFICATION......Page 177
Data statement: Part One. Define the scientific procedure to be used in investigating the postulate......Page 178
Data statement: Part Two. Specify the measurement for each concept of the postulate......Page 180
MEASUREMENT UNIT......Page 181
CONTROLLED ANALYTICAL EXPERIMENT......Page 182
PSEUDOREPLICATION......Page 183
1. Control against ambient variation......Page 184
2. Control treatments to estimate non-treatment effects of the experimental procedure......Page 185
6.5 Whole-system analytical experiments......Page 186
6.6 Discussion......Page 187
6.7 Further reading......Page 189
Summary......Page 191
7.1 Introduction......Page 192
DEDUCATION......Page 193
INDUCTION......Page 198
7.3 The use of propositional logic in ecological research......Page 200
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD......Page 205
7.5 An exercise in choosing between postulates expected to be true and postulates expected to be false......Page 209
7.6 How to decide whether to attempt confirmation or falsification......Page 211
CONTRASTIVE QUESTION......Page 217
CAUSATION......Page 218
DIFFERENCE CONDITION FOR CONTRASTS......Page 220
7.9 A strategy for constructing theory using multiple working postulates......Page 222
7.10 Discussion......Page 223
7.11 Further reading......Page 224
Summary......Page 225
CONFOUNDING......Page 226
STATISTICAL INFERENCE......Page 227
8.2 Refining postulates using exploratory analysis......Page 228
EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS......Page 230
8.3 Developing a scientific procedure and set of measurements......Page 232
POWER OF TEST......Page 236
8.4 Satisfying the logic required for statistical inference......Page 241
8.4.1 Constructing and assessing a statistical hypothesis......Page 248
8.5 Discussion......Page 253
8.6 Further reading......Page 256
9.1 Introduction......Page 257
SCIENTIFIC REALISM......Page 258
METAPHYSICS......Page 260
9.2.1 Teleology......Page 261
TELEOLOGY......Page 262
PARSIMONY......Page 264
EMERGENCE......Page 265
9.2.4 Teleology,parsimony,and reductionism in ecology......Page 266
COMPLETE SYSTEM REDUCTION......Page 269
PARTITIONING REDUCTION......Page 272
EMPIRICISM......Page 273
RATIONALISM......Page 276
9.3.3 Empiricism and rationalism in ecology......Page 278
9.4.1 Criticism......Page 286
RELATIVISM......Page 287
STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTALISM......Page 288
9.5 Discussion......Page 289
9.6 Further reading......Page 290
SCIENTIFIC INFERENCE......Page 291
SYNTHESIS......Page 293
SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION......Page 294
WHY-TYPE QUESTION......Page 295
EXPLANATORY COHERENCE......Page 297
SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING......Page 298
PROGRESSIVE SYNTHESIS......Page 299
Summary......Page 301
UPWARD INFERENCE......Page 302
FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS......Page 303
INTEGRATIVE CONCEPTS......Page 305
DOMAIN OF A FUNCTIONAL CONCEPT OR PROPOSITION......Page 310
DOMAIN OF AN INTEGRATIVE CONCEPT......Page 311
10.4.1 Developing definitions of natural and functional concepts......Page 313
10.4.2 Using functional concepts to define an integrative concept......Page 315
Making a synthesis......Page 322
Assessing the explanatory coherence of the synthesis......Page 324
10.5 Discussion......Page 327
10.6 Further reading......Page 330
Summary......Page 331
11.1 Introduction......Page 332
11.2 Does ecological science advance through recurring revolutions?......Page 333
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION......Page 335
11.2.2 The progress of normal science......Page 337
EXEMPLAR......Page 338
11.2.3 Did a revolution terminate the paradigm?......Page 341
11.2.4 How useful is Kuhn’s theory for understanding research strategy?......Page 345
11.2.5 Scientific inference and the ecosystem paradigm......Page 346
11.3.1 A strategy for continuous assessment......Page 349
HARD CORE KNOWLEDGE......Page 350
POSITIVE HEURISTIC......Page 351
11.3.3 Top-down and bottom-up forces in population and community ecology......Page 352
First specification and criticisms of the theory of top-down control......Page 353
Emergence of an empirical method......Page 355
Successive problemshifts in the research program......Page 360
CRUCIAL EXPERIMENT......Page 361
THE DUHEM–QUINE THESIS......Page 362
Is the top-down research program degenerating?......Page 363
11.3.4 Criticisms of the methodology of scientific research programs......Page 364
11.4 The investigation of domains......Page 366
11.5 Discussion......Page 370
11.6 Further reading......Page 371
Summary......Page 373
MODEL EXPLANATIONS......Page 374
12.2.1 Simple differential equation models......Page 375
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS MODELS......Page 376
DETERMINISTIC MATHEMATICAL MODEL......Page 377
12.2.2 Using dynamic systems models to predict the unexpected......Page 381
12.2.3 Fitting dynamic systems models to ecological systems......Page 385
12.3 Statistical models of dependence......Page 390
12.3.1 Modeling dependence in time series as a stochastic process......Page 391
12.3.2 Assessing a stochastic time series model as an explanation......Page 397
SYSTEMS SIMULATION MODEL......Page 400
12.4.1 Objectives, theory, and model design......Page 401
12.4.2 Calibration and validation......Page 404
model sensitivity......Page 405
validation......Page 406
12.4.3 Assessment using multiple outputs......Page 407
Models as defined representations of a theory......Page 411
The contribution of models to the objectivity of a theory......Page 412
12.6 Further reading......Page 413
Introduction to Section III: Working in the research community......Page 415
Summary......Page 417
13.1 Introduction......Page 418
13.2.1 The balance between norms and counternorms in scientists' behavior......Page 419
13.2.2 Cooperation and competition between individual scientists......Page 425
13.2.3 Fraud and misconduct in science......Page 429
13.2.4 The role of gender in scientific debate and discovery......Page 432
13.3 Creation and use of scientific literature......Page 434
13.3.1 Constructing a scientific paper......Page 435
13.3.2 Peer review......Page 437
13.3.3 Problems of quantity and quality......Page 443
13.3.4 Literature citation and its analysis......Page 445
13.4 Developing and using explicit standards of criticism to construct objective knowledge......Page 447
13.5 Discussion......Page 449
13.6 Further reading......Page 451
14.1 Introduction......Page 453
STANDPOINT......Page 454
14.2.1 Scientists’ standpoints......Page 455
14.2.2 Managerial standpoints......Page 461
14.3 Reviewing and funding scientific research......Page 465
14.3.1 Research proposals and their peer review......Page 466
14.3.2 Scientific research with policy implications......Page 474
14.4 Science, scientists, and society......Page 477
14.5 Discussion......Page 484
14.6 Further reading......Page 485
Introduction to Section IV: Defining a methodology for ecological research......Page 487
Summary......Page 489
15.2 The standpoint of Progressive Synthesis......Page 490
15.2.1 Types of acceptable explanations......Page 491
15.2.2 Certainty in scientific inference......Page 494
CONSTRUCTIVE EMPIRICISM......Page 495
15.3 Principles of Progressive Synthesis......Page 496
15.3.1 Principle I: Continuous application of just and effective criticism......Page 497
EXPLICATION......Page 498
15.3.3 Principle III: Explicit standards must be used to examine the relation between theory and data......Page 500
15.4 Components of the method of Progressive Synthesis......Page 503
15.4.1 Component 1: Analyze the question and seek to use contrastive techniques to focus the research......Page 504
15.4.2 Component 2: Expect to use different techniques of investigation as theories develop and new types of question are…......Page 509
1. Changes in conceptual and propositional structure that makes a new synthesis......Page 510
2. Changes in the explanatory properties of a whole theory......Page 511
15.4.5 Component 5: Define explanatory coherence of the synthesis to make a scientific inference......Page 515
15.5 Discussion......Page 516
15.6 Further reading......Page 518
16.1 Introduction......Page 519
16.2.1 There has been lack of progress in ecology......Page 521
16.2.2 No general theory has emerged......Page 522
16.2.3 Ecological concepts are inadequate......Page 525
16.2.4 Ecologists fail to test their theories......Page 527
16.3 Suggestions made for improving ecological research......Page 528
INSTRUMENTALISM......Page 529
NATURAL HISTORY......Page 530
16.3.3 The relation between concepts and theories......Page 533
OPERATIONALISM......Page 534
16.4 Ideals and strategy of Progressive Synthesis......Page 536
2 An ideal about a rule of learning......Page 537
4. An ideal of method......Page 538
16.5 Further reading......Page 540
Introductory course in scientific method......Page 543
Residential course......Page 546
References......Page 547
Glossary......Page 563
Author index......Page 577
Su ject index......Page 581